ABSTRACT
The
re-emergence of civilian rule in Nigeria in May 1999 was accompanied by
increasing internal security (IS) challenges which have been limiting internal
security provisioning (ISP) in Nigeria.
Some of the IS challenges include armed robbery, kidnapping, oil
bunkering, ethno-religious conflicts, and terrorism. These crimes have been mostly aided by small
arms and light weapons (SALW). It was
perceived that while much attention is focussed on external sources, internal
sourcing of SALW, through clandestine acquisition and application of weapons
technology (WT), couples with inadequate regulation of local fabrication and
circulation of SALW to aid rising IS challenges in Nigeria. The study therefore investigated the
contribution of applied WT to ISP in Nigeria, focussing on the former Eastern
Region of Nigeria.
The
study adopted triangulation design. The target population for investigation was
10,224,161 people (based on 2006 National Population Census) drawn from five
selected states of the former Eastern Region of Nigeria, who were within the
age range of 20 to 79 years. Purposive sampling technique was adopted to select
five of the states (Abia, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Imo, and Rivers) because of
prevalence of the investigated problem.
The sample size of 2,800 respondents was determined, using purposive
sampling. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were adopted for
collecting qualitative data. A validated questionnaire was used to collect
quantitative data. Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for the constructs
in the questionnaire were: WT (0.727) and ISP (0.604). The response rate was
66.5%. The quantitative data were analysed
using descriptive and inferential statistics while the qualitative data were
content-analysed.
Findings
from quantitative data revealed that illegal local fabrication of weapons
significantly contributed to weapons proliferation in Nigeria (R2=0.022,
p˂0.05) and WT significantly affected ISP in Nigeria (R2=0.010,
p˂0.05). Findings from qualitative data
revealed that the government and people of Nigeria possessed assorted WT,
acquired through collaboration with foreign weapons industries, reverse engineering,
and mentorship, and applied in fabricating high-grade weapons. People of different social statuses were
engaged in illicit fabrication of weapons.
Illicit fabrication and racketeering of SALW were male-dominated; the IS
condition of Nigeria tangibly determined who got involved in the acts. The government applied multiple strategies
like legal prohibition, arrest, prosecution, and punishment of convicts to
regulate WT and weapons, but has often precluded identifying with, co-opting,
and upgrading local fabricators of weapons in Nigeria.
The
study concluded that illegal possession and application of WT constituted a
high-risk factor to ISP in Nigeria. The
study recommended improved regulation of WT and SALW for improvement of ISP in
Nigeria. Investigation for regulation of WT and weapons should include every
category of people in the society, with emphases on the male gender. In
addition to the strategies applied for regulating WT in the country, the
government should consider careful identification and co-option of the local
fabricators of weapons, upgrading their operational platforms through training
and equipment, and employing them for improvement of Nigeria’s local technology
base and armament supplies.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
to the Study
Technical
know-how for construction of weapons, either by means of handcrafting or
through industrial production, is the most significant cause of massive
availability and proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in the
world. The latter inversely correlates with
internal security (IS) of most countries.
As weapons technologies (WTs) increase in sophistication and
circulation, so do the production and circulation of SALW and their ammunitions
to and fro “legitimate” and “illegitimate” handlers. Thus, development,
improvement, dispersal, and use of WTs have remained double-edged swords: The
resultant weapons often simultaneously provide security and insecurity, across
human societies. As weapons are used to
protect lives and properties, and to ensure safe environments for people to
live and function in, so are they sometimes used to destabilize the society,
making it unsafe for human habitation and functionality. The people in possession of WTs and their
products at any time often strongly determine the roles that WTs and weapons
play in the society: While “legitimate” possessors may use them to protect the
society and its elements, “illegitimate” possessors often use them to cause
havoc in the society (Okafor, Okeke & Aniche, 2012; Chuma-Okoro,
2011).
Since the earliest incidence of WTs and crafting in
human societies, weapons (especially SALW) have often been handled by
“legitimate” and “illegitimate” users.
All efforts made by state authorities to regulate possession and use of
WTs and weapons have often been tangibly undermined. In some societies, circulation of WTs and
weapons has been very minimal while in many others, it has been very severe (Edeko,
2011; Small Arms Survey, 2007).
With only a few countries (including but not limited to Britain, China,
and France) being able to reasonably control indiscriminate circulation of WTs
and weapons, only the said few have been able to achieve relative IS and peace
that is reasonable; such countries mainly include the developed countries of
the world. The developing countries like
most of the Asian and African countries often face lots of violent internal
conflicts and crises emanating from inadequate regulation of WTs and weapons (Edeko,
2011; Abdel-Fatau, 2004).
In
this era of highly globalised world, the Internet and the associated social
media have often been used to circumvent the regulation of WTs more than ever
before. Massive transmission of
information through the Internet and the social media have unduly enhanced
circulation of WTs thereby preventing them from being exclusive preserves of
the military industry and government security agencies. With the Internet, any technical enthusiast
can now easily access blueprints of weapons building or related resource
documents. In addition to that,
interested person(s) can receive technical supports from many online
sources. With these factors in place,
local craftsmen now have the opportunity of improving on their skills of
craft-production of weapons. Also,
opportunities now exist for them to try out newer methods of fabrication of
their regular and ‘newer’ weapons.
Consequently, interested craftsmen everywhere in the world have either
learnt, or developed their already acquired, art of weapons fabrication and
have been producing SALW for various reasons and purposes (Onuoha,
2006 cited in Edeko, 2011). This situation has
progressively contributed to geometric rise in IS challenges, which have often
been underreported, for many countries (Small
Arms Survey, 2007).
The types of weapons most frequently used to
destabilize IS of many societies are not those originally known as weapons of
mass destruction – nuclear and atomic bombs, biological and chemical
weapons. Rather the most destructive
weapons since the demise of the Cold War have been the SALW. This is because of the relative ease with
which they can be produced, moved or carried, proliferated, and operated (Nte,
2011; Obuoforibo, 2010; UN Document A/52/228, 27 August, 1997). Proliferations of these weapons sourced
through trade, local crafting, reverse engineering, theft, renting, and all sorts
of illegal supplies, have been on the rise.
The rapid and unwanted circulation of SALW has reached alarming rates in
many Third World countries, especially since the end of the Cold War. Thus, there have been rising cases of
internal insecurity in the developing parts of the world since the collapse of
the Soviet Union (1989 to 1991). The
countries worst hit by the said phenomena have been the badly divided societies
which are faulted along ethnic, religious, economic, and political cleavages
like Nigeria.
In
spite of the fact that SALW do not necessarily cause conflicts, their massive
availability promotes fresh engagement in and or sustenance of existing violent
contentions. They have been the tools
for executing various kinds of violent crimes – armed robbery, political
assassination, kidnapping or abduction, prison violation, petroleum pipeline
vandalism, oil theft (bunkering), and intimidation of all kinds. They have also served well in intergroup
clashes like intra- and inter- ethnic conflicts in which violence is perceived
to be necessary for successful intimidation and defeat of opponents (Religions
for Peace, African Council of Religious Leaders, 2010).
All
of the above IS challenges have been experienced and are still on-going in
contemporary Nigeria. In Nigeria, especially since the end of
military rule in 1999, there has been increasing rates of weapons-related
violence with attendant speculation of high rising circulation of SALW within
the country. These occurrences have been
attributed to many factors like opportunistic venting of bottled-up vexations
of the military era by various groups in Nigeria (Egbefo & Salihu, 2014; Albert, 2012), corruption of government
officials (Orikpe, 2013; Adebakin
and Raimi, 2012), and use of extreme violence by the government to
quell internal crises (Adekunle, 2013; Babatunde; 2010; Omotola, 2010). Other alleged causes include
selfish attitudes of national politicians (Adebakin
and Raimi, 2012; Kasali, 2011; Hazen & Horner,
2007); poor handling of sensitive conflict phenomena (Azinge, 2013; Thom-Otuya,
2009); fear and the need for personal and group security within the citizenry
(Hazen and Horner; 2007); and ethnic, religious, and political intolerances (Dode, 2012; Sen, 1999). Whatever the causes
may have been, the incidence of the various forms of violent acts in Nigeria
has been rising from strength to strength and from simplistic occurrences to
very complex forms. So, lives and
property have been unprotected with stability unguaranteed in the country. Internal security of Nigeria has been so
threatened that the apparatuses of the state currently seem to be incapable of
providing public safety for Nigeria and its citizenry.
As
a corollary to the foregoing, then, one aspect of the national interests in
which the Nigerian State has often failed to achieve its goals is in providing
sustainable IS for its citizenry. The
worst experience with this national inability was the Nigerian Civil War,
taking into account the various pre-1967 massacres and the worsening incidence
of the war (1967 to 1970). Being that
proliferation and illegal use of SALW have been aiding IS challenges in
Nigeria, this study sought to
explore the contributions of WT to proliferation of SALW and the observed IS
situations of Nigeria in order to contribute to making the country a safer
society.
1.2 Statement
of the Problem
The re-emergence of civilian
rule in Nigeria in May 1999, after about 30 intermittent years of military
rule, was accompanied by a situation of ever increasing IS challenges which
have been limiting internal security provisioning (ISP) in the country
(Ogbuzor, 2011; Alozieuwa, 2010; Allen & Okeke-Uzodike, 2010; Ishaku,
2009). Some of the IS challenges have
included incessant crimes like armed robbery, kidnapping, oil bunkering,
ethno-religious clashes, ethnic militia cum government clashes, politically
motivated killings, government ordered genocide, indiscriminate murder of
unarmed civilians by state security agents, proliferation of SALW, and acts of
terrorism.
Interestingly, these IS problems have been highly aided by
proliferation and indiscriminate use of SALW.
So, part of the efforts needed to limit IS challenges in the country
include the need to discover and regulate the sources and circuits of SALW flow
in Nigeria. Consequently, many scholars
(including Albert, 2014; Okeke & Oji, 2014; Bassey, 2012; Edeko, 2011;
Badmus, 2010; Obuoforibo, 2010; Thom-Otuya, 2009; Harzen & Horner, 2007;
Onuoha, 2006; Ikelegbe, 2005) have found that SALW are acquired through
importation, illegal sales and renting by some unscrupulous citizens and IS
agents, and various forms of loss to criminals.
Although these scholars also attest, in various degrees, to the
existence of functional WTs in Nigeria serving as alternative sources of SALW
used in crimes in the country, they often suggest that the consequent crafted
weapons are highly inferior and infinitesimally circulated, and thus
inconsequential to IS problems in Nigeria.
This latter perception seems to have usually diverted IS attention away
from the possibility of viable alternative internal sourcing of weapons for
limiting ISP in Nigeria. Thus, the
likely threat posed by local sourcing of weapons has often been underexposed,
underestimated, and underemphasised.
Considering the recurrently intensifying incidence of violence in the
country, it is evident that if the acquisition and application of WTs in
Nigeria is further ignored, they can so much influence SALW-related violence as
to bring the country into self-destruction.
Therefore, the problematic of this study was to critically interrogate
the contributions of applied WTs in framing the conditions of ISP in Nigeria,
with attempts to discover possible means of stemming the tide of multiple IS
challenges, focusing on experiences from the former Eastern Region of Nigeria.
1.3 Objective
of the Study
The
main objective of the study is to explore the contribution of weapons
technology (WT) to internal security provisioning (ISP) in Nigeria. The specific objectives are to:
1. determine
the types, modes of acquisition, circulation, and use of available WT and
weapons in the area of study;
2. probe
the traits or peculiarities of the local craft-fabricators of SALW in the area
of study;
3. investigate
the effects of circulation of WT and weapons on the state of internal security
in the area of study;
4. explore
the challenges of controlling the circulation of WT and weapons alongside their
effects on the internal security of the area of study;
5. examine
Nigerian Government’s strategies of regulating weapons and WT within the
country and
6. deduce
possible means of stemming the deleterious consequences of circulation of WT
and weapons on the internal security of the area of study.
1.4 Research
Questions
This
research made use of seven queries as follows:
1. What
types of WT and weapons exist in the area of study?
2. How
are the available WT and weapons acquired, circulated, and used in the area of
study?
3. What
are the traits or peculiarities of the local craft-fabricators of weapons in
the area of study?
4. What
are the effects of circulation of WT and weapons on the state of internal
security in the area of study?
5. How
does the Nigerian Government regulate acquisition and use of WT and weapons
within the country?
6. What
are the challenges of controlling the circulation of weapons and WT alongside
their effects on public safety in the area of study?
7. How
can the identifiable interplay(s) between circulation of weapons and WT be
managed to stem their deleterious consequences on the internal security of the
area of study?
1.5 Hypotheses
Ho1: Illegal local craft-production of weapons does not
significantly contribute to weapons proliferation in Nigeria;
Ho2: WT does not have significant adverse effect on ISP in Nigeria.
1.5.1 Assumptions
Ao1: Contemporary WT does not exist in Nigeria;
Ao2: Competitively high-grade weapons are not locally crafted in
Nigeria;
Ao3: There are no motivating factors for acquisition of WT in
Nigeria;
Ao4: ISP and ISM in Nigeria are inadequate;
1.6 Justification
for the Study
Contributing
to remediation or, at least, containment of certain pressing IS challenges in
Nigeria made this proposed study a worthwhile endeavour. Part of the justification of this research is
that it sought to contribute to possible limitation of the destructiveness and
recurrence of the arms-related crises experienced in Nigeria. The study was to achieve this target through
additional fact-finding that could equip the national government, the security
agencies, and the entire citizenry of Nigeria to handle the evolving IS
challenges better. For instance, some of
the reviewed extant literature (including Onyeozili, 2005; Nwanolue &
Iwuoha, 2012) made direct or indirect mention of the existence of WT in Nigeria
and acknowledged that the said technology is used to fabricate weapons in
Nigeria, making use of either crude or refined methods or both. But these authors did not consider the
question of how WTs are either acquired or spread in Nigeria. Neither did they provide tangible information
on how the illegal and legal craft-productions take place. Moreover, without much concern, they mainly
asserted the inferiority of locally produced weapons without much empirical
verification. Many of the authors did
not explore the motivations for local production of weapons. They merely acknowledged its existence, and
mostly from secondary literature. Thus,
part of the significance of the study is that it provided fact-based
information on how WT used in local craft production of weapons in Nigeria is
being sourced and spread; the reality of the acclaimed inferiority of locally
fabricated weapons, and the factors that encourage people to get involved in
it.
The study contributed to extant knowledge in the area of the roles
played by WT in framing the IS condition of Nigeria. Many of
the available literature on proliferation of weapons and its effects on IS in Nigeria (including Albert, 2014; Bassey, 2012; Badmus, 2010) did
not try to explore the role of WT in determining the extent of proliferation of
weapons and the state of IS in Nigeria. In addition, many
of the existing resource materials were composed from secondary sources,
adapting a few concrete data from other previously existing literature, and
thereby being more of rehashes of existing knowledge. The study, therefore, went into more concrete
research for current evidences on the technology behind local production of
weapons, and to test the continuing relevance of the said extant literature.
1.7 Scope
of the Study
Internal
security (IS) issues in Nigeria cannot be adequately covered in a single
research work. Therefore, the research
was limited to the following areas of concern, as evident in the statement of
problem.
================================================================
Item Type: Ph.D Material | Attribute: 313 pages | Chapters: 1-5
Format: MS Word | Price: N3,000 | Delivery: Within 30Mins.
================================================================
No comments:
Post a Comment