ABSTRACT
Climate change has been at the heart of desertification
in Sub-Saharan Africa. One of such migrant groups affected by the menace are
the herdsmen who are often in constant clash with their host communities
especially farmers in terms of resource use; paramount amongst which is land. Consequently,
in response to the challenge posed by massive desertification in Africa
combined with the inherent socio-economic disadvantages the menace carries, the
African Union (AU) initiated the Great Green Wall Program (GGWP) in 2007 aimed
at creating a green wall across Africa from the West to the East with the view
of regenerating the area and ensuring the livelihoods of the locals therein are
secured. Nonetheless, nine years after its creation, the program has not seen
meaningful impact in some areas, which has furthered the cause of climate
induced conflict in Nigeria. Thus, this study was focused on investigating the
performance of the Great Green Wall Project in relation to its expected
usefulness in curbing farmers/herders conflict in Kwara State, Nigeria.
In order to achieve the research objective, the survey
research design was adopted for the study. The primary and secondary sources of
data collection was used in this research work. The primary source of data was
generated from farmers, herdsmen, members of staff of Ministry of Environment
and Forestry, Nigeria Immigration Service and National Agency for the Great
Green Wall via interview while the secondary source of data includes relevant
text books, journals, publications, seminar papers, newspaper articles and
other relevant materials. The primary data was content analysed.
The
study revealed that though the National Agency for the Great Green Wall has put
in place various programmes to correct the menace of desertification, the
agency need to urgently extend its programmes way beyond the 11 frontier states
mostly hit by the effects of desertification. The inclusion of all states of
the federation in its programs will help ameliorate and reduce constant clashes
being witnessed nationwide especially in Kwara state as it will help reduce the
migratory tendencies of herders.
The
study concluded by pinpointing the need for greater security at Nigeria’s loose
borders especially in the North in order to combat the problem of foreign
unchecked herders straying into the country; and the need for constant
communication and understanding between herders, farmers and local communities.There
is also the need to incorporate the tool of conflict prevention in the
management of conflict between herders and farmers in order to reduce constant
clashes, improve security at Nigeria’s borders, maintain existing grazing
reserves and educate farmers and herders on coping techniques to conflict. Thus,
the thrust of this study is to investigate the Great Green Wall Programme in
light of its expected usefulness in curbing farmer and herder conflicts in Kwara
state, Nigeria.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
to the Study
Climate change, long-term
transmutation in the earth's climate, especially a transmutation due to an
expansion in the normal barometrical temperature, is not an incipient
phenomenon. Most of these climate changes are attributed to minutely diminutive
variations in Earth’s orbit that transmute the amount of solar energy our
planet receives (Peterson et. al, 2009). The present warming pattern is of
particular consequence on the grounds that the greater part of it is likely
human-incited and continuing at a rate that is phenomenal in the past 1,300
years (Allison et.al, 2009). Most climate scientists accede the main cause of
the current warming trend is human expansion of the "greenhouse
effect", warming that result when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from
Earth toward space (Naomi, 2004). A more vigorous greenhouse effect will warm
the oceans and partially melt glaciers and other frozen di-hydrogen monoxide,
thus creating an astonishing increase in sea level (Church et.al, 2006).
Gradually, the warming of air temperatures cause drought conditions and avert
the sustained development of vegetation. This, combined with human activity of
chopping down trees, overgrazing and the clearing of land for agribusiness,
leads to continual desertification witnessed in specific regions.
Desertification is a form of land
degradation by which land becomes more arid (Arnalds, 2000). It generally refers to “the procedure of
fruitful land changing into desert typically as a result of deforestation,
drought, or incongruous methods of farming” (Reynolds, 2001). This process more
often than not brings about the desertified land losing its vegetation, water
bodies (lakes, streams), and wildlife.
Desertification causes abstraction of nutrients from the soil, making
land infertile and unusable for cultivation. With this process, the world
looses about 12 million hectares of productive land yearly. due to
desertification and drought alone (Veron et.al, 2006). Desertification is a
noteworthy issue over the world, most remarkably in dryland zones (counting
vast zones in Africa, for example, the Sahel).
About 40% of Earth’s land is
covered by drylands, and these areas are home to over 2 billion people (Idris
et al, 2011). However, while climate change and desertification can frequently
go as an inseparable unit, each one able to exacerbate the other, the part
these two components play in migration is starting to gain increased global
attention. With the current progression of the world's deserts, there may soon
be few places for environmentally displaced persons to go (Neely et.al, 2009).
Geometric increase in human population in drylands has led to reduction in soil
quality and thus increased the pressure to migrate due to unpredictable
rainfall patterns leading to frequent drought (Bassett et.al, 2003;
Coughenour, 2008). Such migrations, often caused by depleted means of
livelihood bring the migrants into constant clashes with the local population especially
over use of resources, especially land. The movement of dry land inhabitants
into the hinterland has led to conflict over scarce resources in terms of land
use and management especially between farmers and herdsmen (Amadiet.al, 2011). As is with the case in
Nigeria, the effects of desertification, in mostly the northernmost parts, have
necessitated the migration of herdsmen southward in search of greener pastures
for their cattle. The consequent foray of cattle into local farms in these
areas has continually led to clashes between farmers and migrating herders
(Olabode&Ajibade, 2011). Strife between farmers and herdsmen for the
utilization of agricultural land is becoming fierce and increasingly wide
spread in Nigeria largely due to production activities that are necessitated by
increasing human population.
In light of this, it is pertinent to note the heterogeneous
nature of Nigeria with its multiplicity of ethnicities and possibilities of
conflict triggers in form of ethnic clashes emanating from resource use. One
feature which has distinguished Kwara State, the case study for this research,
is the prevailing peace and harmony despite the multiplicity of tribes and
cultures. The state is described as a microcosm of Nigeria. It is a home to the
Yoruba, Hausa, Fulani, Nupe, Bariba, among others. All these tribes have, from
years immemorial, co-existed peacefully and harmoniously with less friction.
The presence of the varied ethnicities is typified in its sobriquet as the
State of Harmony to depict the influx of people from all parts of the country
settling down to relish the peace in the state.
However, the recent spate of attacks by Fulani herdsmen and
farmers casts a dark shadow on the existing harmony in the state. Though the
problem of farmers/herders clash has been a recurring decimal in Nigeria, Kwara
State has had its fair taste of the crisis. Recently,
the clashes have been getting bloodier. In 2015, according to (Abdullateef,
2015), there was a huge confrontation between herdsmen of Fulani descent and
native farmers. The conflict started from Asa Local Government in Kwara Central
Senatorial District and spread to communities in Kwara South Senatorial
District: Oro-Ago in Ifelodun Local Government and Eruku in Irepodun Local
Government. Prominent among the causes of the conflict, apart from the straying
of cattle into farmlands and reprisal attacks, is the failure of the herdsmen
to abide by extant rules which forbad bringing weapons to the market. Conflict
emanated during the struggle by the local vigilante to seize the said weapons
from the herdsmen. The result of the conflict was the death of eight townsmen
according to the traditional ruler of Eruku, HRH Oba BusariOlarewaju, who also
stated that the community has been experiencing Fulani/Bororo attack for the
past 10 years. This highlights not just
the need for grazing options in hitherto reported conflicts but adds a new
dimension in terms of the importance of understanding and mutual co-habitation
between herders and their host communities.
While the dust over the Eruku and Oro-Ago incidents is yet to
settle, there was a similar confrontation in Patigi Local Government, in Kwara
North senatorial district in June 2015, where farmers and herdsmen clashed at a
community called Motokun. It was learnt that members of the community staged a
reprisal attack on the Fulani herdsmen, with casualties recorded on both sides.
After the Patigi attack, there was another incident reported at ObboAiyegunle
in Ekiti Local Government Area, where some indigenes allegedly attacked a
Fulani camp, asking them to vacate their lands. The Fulani settlement was set
ablaze in the process with unspecified number of cattle killed.These are some
of the examples of the recent cases of conflict between farmers and herders in
Kwara State.
In light of these attacks, this study seeks to peruse the
Great Green Wall Project as an initiative whose success can have spiral effects
in curbing the southward movement of herders in search of greener pasture for
their cattle. The successful implementation of this program will mean lesser
confrontation between migrant farmers and herdsmen in Kwara State. However,
putting into consideration the presence of indigenous Fulanis, Kwara State
offers another dynamic to approaching the conflict between farmers and
herdsmen. In this case, not all herdsmen are migrants. The three classes of Fulanis;
the nomadic or bororo, the semi-nomadic and the settled or town Fulani (Frantz,
1981), are present in the state. This means not all confrontations between the
farmers and herders are as a result of migration but unavailability of grazing
options for the latter. It is within this ambit that the tenets of the Great
Green Wall in terms of greening the landscapes and ensuring the protection of
the livelihoods will be investigated and perused as to the usefulness of its
application in other states of the federation.
1.2 Statement of the
Problem
The Great Green Wall Project was
initiated in 2007 to help arrest massive desertification, especially in Sahel
Africa. It is a project of the African Union targeted at building a wall of
green lands across Africa; from the east to the west, hinged on improving the
economy of the affected areas and reducing clashes instigated on the basis of
land usage and management. While the project is in different phases in
different African countries, it beholds on each national government to develop
policies that will fast-track the implementation of the project to the relief
of its people. However, on the premise of a project in progress and in light of
the continual desertification of Northern Nigeria, the country is still
witnessing constant struggle for land resources between farmers and herdsmen
due to the mass migration of the latter southward. This movement coupled with
the unavailability of grazing routes /lands or ranches has been responsible for
encroachment of farms by cattle and consequent violent conflict between local
farmers and herdsmen.
Desertification has become a
security threat to the Nigerian state. The recent Agatu killings, massacres in
Enugu, kidnappings in Ondo and attacks in various parts of Kwara state covering
the three senatorial zones, carried out by supposed herdsmen pose great danger,
not only to the lives and security of the local populace but the unity of
Nigeria as a whole. This has put the state governors of affected states in a
dilemma of either maintaining the cord of nationalism in the vein of free
movement and settlement of Nigerians irrespective of ethnicity or protection of
the people who voted them into power at all cost. The security problem is not
helped by Nigeria’s loose borders, which makes it easy for foreigners to wreak
havoc in the country while hiding under the banner of herdsmen affected by
desertification. This is quite pronounced in the recent admission by Senator
Heineken Lokpobiri, Minister of State for Agriculture on May 10, 2016 that
those arrested in connection with Fulani herdsmen killings cannot speak Fulani
or any Nigerian language suggests the influx of foreign elements into the
country unchecked. The inability of the government to control the influx of
dangerous foreigners terrorizing Nigerian citizens in their homeland might in
the long run pose much more daunting challenges than the current fight against
the Boko Haram terrorists.
As well noted by Rashid (2012),
conflicts between farmers and herdsmen are well spread across Kwara state, most
particularly in ten Local Government Areas: Asa, Edu, Ifelodun, Ilorin East,
Kaiama, Moro, Patigi, Baruteen, Irepodun and Ekiti. The continuous clashes
between farmers and herders in this locations continue to be a cause for
concern for locals as well as putting into danger the prospect of attracting
investors to Kwara state. This brings to bear the urgency of the state
government’s resolve to establish three new grazing reserves across the state
in Alapa (Asa Local Government, Kwara central senatorial district), Lata
(Patigi Local Government, Kwara North senatorial district), Babanla (Ifelodun
Local Government, Kwara south senatorial district) and the rehabilitation of
the GidaMagajiya reserve to accommodate more herdsmen. A fast-track of
government plans along this line should be a step in the right direction if the
constant clashes between farmers and herdsmen are to be reduced.
Also, in light of the constant
clashes between local farmers and herdsmen, there is a need to incorporate
strategies for managing conflict in the affected areas. This brings to bear the
important role of extant traditional, religious, nomadic/agricultural institutions
in peace-building and conflict resolution. As reported by Abdullateef (2015), traditional
rulers especially in Kwara State are most times the first point of call after
clashes between herders and their host communities occur. A case in point was
the intervention of the Emir of Ilorin and chairman of the state Council of
Traditional Rulers, Alhaji Ibrahim Zulu Gambari, in the conflict between Fulani
herdsmen and some Yoruba inhabitants at Alapa in Asa Local Government Area in
2014. Notwithstanding, the intervention came only after lives had been lost and
property worth millions of naira destroyed.
The Great Green Wall Project is
expected to be a viable initiative that offers practical solutions to the root
problem of desertification affecting the country. However, it remains a problem
in linking a working document to implementing policies that would see the hitherto
recommendations being applied and actualized. Therefore, this study is focused
on the Great Green Wall Project as a potential tool to reduce the impact of
desertification and its attendant effect on violent clashes between local
farmers and herdsmen in Kwara State, Nigeria.
1.3 Objective of the Study
The
main objective of this research was to investigate the performance of the Great
Green Wall Project in relation to its expected usefulness in curbing
farmers/herders conflict in Kwara State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are
to:
1. examine
models of implementing the Great Green Wall Project in light of continual
desertification in Nigeria;
2. seek
ways in which the government can maintain/develop grazing reserves in order to
reduce constant clashes between local farmers and herders in Kwara State;
3. assess
the conflict prevention models put in place to alleviate clashes between
farmers and herdsmen in Kwara State;
4. source
for ways of developing better communication, understanding and cooperation
between local farmers and migrating herdsmenin Kwara State and;
5. examine
ways in which Nigeria’s borders especially in the northeast can be secured to
prevent the influx of foreign pastoralists, arms and ammunitions.
1.4
Research
Questions
1. What
are the models of the Great Green Wall Project implementation in light of continuous
desertification inNigeria?
2. How
can the government maintain/develop grazing reserves in order to reduce
constant clashes between local farmers and herders in Kwara State?
3. What
conflict prevention models can be used to avert farmer/herder clashes in Kwara
State?
4. In
what ways can communication between local farmers and migrating herdsmen in
Kwara State be improved upon?
5. To
what extent could Nigeria secure its borders,especially in the northeast, to prevent
the influx of foreign pastoralists, arms and ammunitions?
1.5
Significance
of the Study
This study is
significant because it investigated the cause of constant clashes between farmers
and herdsmen and the effect of desertification in relation to the frequent
conflict between both groups in Kwara state. In attending to the issue, this
study perused the Great Green Wall Project (GGWP) document as an alternate and
pro-active way of responding to the menace of desertification. The study would not
only be of benefit to the farmers/herders community who are affected by the
brewing conflict, but the government as well as it deals with the fine margins
between policy formulation and implementation.
Another dimension to the conflict
between herders and farmers in Kwara State is the composition of not only the
Fulani population as discussed earlier but that of the herdsmen in general. In
Kwara, herdsmen are not only Fulanis as some also belong to the Nupe ethnic
group. Thus, the study will significantly not be stereotypical in acceding to
the term “Fulani herdsmen” but engage the general population and composition of
herdsmen in Kwara State.
1.6 Methodology
The
study is a qualitative research, which used the survey research design. This design is a method for collecting information
or data as reported by individuals. Since the participants are providing the
information, it is referred to as self-report data. Primary
and secondary data sources were used. The primary data was generated from focused
group discussionsand official government documents. The secondary data was
sourced from books, journals, articles publications, newspapers, magazines and
other materials that are relevant to the topic under study. The interview
guide, composed of 42 questions, was content analysed.
The study made use of the
multi-stage random and judgmental sampling techniques. Thus in selecting
respondents for the study, out of the 16 local government areas (LGAs) in the
state, 10 local governments that experience more clashes between farmers and
herders were considered (Rashid, 2012).
Out of these 10, four were randomly selected. These are:Baruteen, Patigi,Asa, and Ifelodun LGAs. First, three local
governments were selected based on the three senatorial districts in Kwara
state to make them truly representative of the entire state (Kwara North:
Patigi; Kwara Central: Asa; and Kwara South: Ifelodun). The fourth local government,
Baruteen, was selected due to the location of the recently re-established GidanMagajiya grazing reserve there
by the state government. The reserve is the largest and most partially
functioning grazing reserve in Kwara state (Olomola, 1998).
In each LGA, four farming communities
were selected randomly to make a total of 16 villages. Five arable crop farmers
were randomly selected from each village, to make a total of 80farmers. Also,
in each LGA, four transit camps of herdsmen were selected randomly to make a
total of 16 transit camps. Five herdsmen were randomly selected from each transit
camp to make a total of 80. From the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 40
respondents out of the total population of 198 were selected randomly based on
the judgment of the researcher as to their knowledge and purposed contribution
to the subject matter.Five respondents were also selected randomly from the
upper echelons of the Nigeria Immigration Service while five random respondents
were also selected from the senior staff of the National Agency for Great Green
Wall. In all, 210 respondents were selected for the data collection.
1.7
Scope
of the Study
This study focused on the relevance
of the GGWP in curbing farmers/herders conflict in Nigeria vis-Ã -vis government
responsibility to its citizenry in the area of policy implementation.
Therefore, only issues pertaining to governmental responsibility in curbing
desertification and such effects on the constant conflict between farmers and
herdsmen were discussed. Kwara state was used as a case study not only due to
its record of constant clashes between farmers and herders in Nigeria but
because of the unique composition of its inhabitants. Kwara state is unique for
having the presence of indigene Fulanisand other ethnic groups such as Nupe, who
are herdsmen. This means the study will not be stereotypically limited to the
assumption that all herdsmen are migrants nor based on addressing all herdsmen
as Fulanis. Also, the inclusion of settled herdsmen who are part of the
townsmen historically will give this study another dimension in which it
approaches the subject matter. The time frame of this study was from 2007-2016.
This time period was chosen putting into consideration that the Great Green
Wall Initiative was adopted and kick-started as a project of the African Union
in 2007.
1.8
Operational
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined as they will be
recurrent in the course of this study:
1. Conflict:
The term proposes contrasts and difference between people especially in terms
of use of resources.
2. Desert
encroachment: The ceaseless desertification of a specific territory activated
by changes in climatic patterns brought about basically by human activities.
3. Migrant
Herders: Pastoralists that move their cattle in search of green pasture.
"Migrant" is appended to mean the persistent mass movement of herders
southward looking for green terrains because of the impact of desertification.
4. Farmer:
A man who cultivates a land.
5. Great
Green Wall Project: A project of the African Union aimed at creating a
greenbelt from West to East Africa in order to mitigate the effects of
desertification.
6. Desert:
A dry land with little or no vegetative cover having minimal or no significant
rainfall.
7. Insurgent:
A man who rebels against a set up government.
8. Global
warming: A steady increment in the general temperature of the world's climate
by and large credited to the greenhouse
effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide and other pollutants.
9. Green-house
gasses: Any vaporous compound in the environment that is fit for engrossing
infrared radiation, in this way catching and holding heat in the air.
10. Greenhouse
impact: A regular procedure by which the air traps a portion of the Sun's
energy, warming the Earth enough to bolster life.
11. Nomadic/Pastoral
Fulani (Bororo): Fulani who moves around with his cattle throughout the year.
He does not stay around for long, circa four months per location.
12. Semi-Nomadic
Fulani: This set of Fulanis either settle down temporarily at particular times
of the year or do not wander too far away from their settled home.
13. Town
Fulani: They live in towns and cities and have given up the nomadic life
completely in favour of an urban one.
1.9
Plan
of Study
This work will be divided into five
chapters. Chapter one, which is the introductory chapter, gives a background to
the study, statement of problem, objectives and the scope of study. Chapter two
will review relevant literature and introduce the theoretical framework.
Chapter three will discuss the tenets, aims and objectives of the Great Green
Wall Project. The chapter will also outline the functions and activities of the
National Agency for the Great Green Wall, which is the co-ordinating agency of
the program in Nigeria. In chapter four, data results will be discussed even as
the findings of the study will be discussed. Chapter five will contain the
summary, conclusion and recommendations for this study.
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