ABSTRACT
This research was designed to determine and compare the
technical efficiency and input levels used in rice production under farmer
managed irrigation systems (FMIS) and rain fed systems (RFS) in Kogi State. It
also compared the effects of socioeconomic characteristics on the technical
efficiency of farmers in the FMIS and RFS. Four null hypotheses were tested.
The study was conducted in commercial rice producing areas of Kogi State. It
adopted a multi stage purposive sampling technique. Agricultural Zones where
rice is produced in commercial quantities were purposively stratified into
three (3) based on a preliminary survey. From these three zones, one local
government area (LGA) each was selected based on the availability of commercial
rice farms in the area. Out of these LGAs (Ibaji, Bassa and Kogi LGAs), forty
(40) rice farmers each were randomly sampled giving a total sample size of one
hundred and twenty (120) rice farmers. Primary data were obtained by interviews
via a set of structured questionnaires. Data were analyzed using descriptive
statistics, Levene’s test, Welch and Brown-Forsythe robust tests for equality
of means, Chow-break point test and maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) of
stochastic frontier and inefficiency models. The mean age of farmers in the
study area was 42 years. The farmers in the study area spent a mean of 8 years
on formal education. Seventy two percent (72%) of the farmers were males while
twenty eight percent (28%) were females. Women were not participating
remarkably well especially in ownership of rice farms in the study area. The
mean value of rice farming experience in the study area was 16years. Results
showed that the FMIS had a higher intensity of inputs usage than the RFS. In
the input comparison between FMIS and RFS, statistically significant positive
mean differentials were recorded for land, fertilizer quantities applied,
family and hired labour, quantities of pesticides used on the farm and value of
water used on the farm per farming season. The estimated elasticities of mean
output with respect to land, fertilizer, family labour, seeds, and water were
statistically significant at less than 1 percent and 5 percent in the FMIS.
Their respective elasticities were 0.33, 0.010, 0.075, 0.151 and 0.165. It was
indicated that land size (farm size) and quantities of fertilizer applied by
the farmers, were the statistically significant determinants of technical
efficiency in the RFS. The elasticities of rice output with respect to the
inputs, land and chemical fertilizer utilized were 0.276 and 0.024
respectively. This result is unlike the FMIS where five variables had
statistically significant elasticities. The mean technical efficiency of the
FMIS was 73 percent. It was lower than that of the rainfed system which had 90
percent. Significant difference existed in the technical efficiencies of the
two groups. The returns to scale estimated, 0.813, and 0.476 for both FMIS and
RFS respectively indicated that farms in the study area were characterized by
decreasing returns scale. Farming experience, years of formal education and
frequency of extension contacts exerted statistically significant effects on
the technical efficiencies of the FMIS. Meanwhile four out of the six
socio-economic variables, education, extension contact and age of farmers had
statistically significant t-ratios or influences on the levels of rice output
recorded by the RFS farmers. They were all significant at less than 1 percent
alpha level. Significant differences existed in most of the socioeconomic
variables of the two group of rice farmers studied in Kogi State. Five major
recommendations were made which included the need for capacity building among
farmers and extension agents, public investment in irrigation projects,
public-private partnership aimed at encouraging resource conservation and
inputs supply (including microcredit) to rice growing communities among others.
CHAPTER
ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the study
Rice is a plant that produces an edible grain; the name is
also used for the grain itself. There are several thousand varieties of rice
(mostly wild), all belonging to the family Poaceae, formerly Gramineae
(Microsoftt Student, 2007 DVD). The cultivated rice plant, African and Asian
rice (oryza glaberrima L and oryza sativa L), is an annual grass. It
grows to about 1.2 m (4 feet) in height. The leaves are long and flattened, and
its panicle, or inflorescence, is made up of spikelets bearing flowers that
produce the fruit, or grain (Rashid-Noah, 2003, & Encyclopaedia Britannica
Deluxe, 2004). In Nigeria rice is planted from April to May and harvested from
August to November.
Water resource management and utilization is critical to the
success or failure of many agricultural enterprises especially rice farming
(Hoffman and Ashwell, 2001 and World Bank, 2006). Shortle and Griffin (2001) noted
that surface water (e.g. rivers, lakes, estuaries and wetlands) which are
highly limited in supply provide about 70% water used in agricultural
production. However, Botkin and Keller (1997) asserted that improved or
efficient rice irrigation system could contribute meaningfully to meeting the
desirable goals of environmental resource conservation. They held that improved
irrigation systems could reduce withdrawal of freshwater by between 20% and
30%.
Rice cultivation originated as early as 10,000 BC in Asia
(Microsoft, 2007). Archaeological evidence shows that rice was grown in
Thailand as early as 4000 BC, and over the centuries spread to China, Japan,
and Indonesia. By 400 BC rice was cultivated in the Middle East and Africa.
(Microsoftt Student, 2007). Rice culture gradually spread westward and was
introduced to southern Europe in medieval times. With the exception of the type
called upland rice, the plant is grown on submerged land in the coastal plains,
tidal deltas, and river
basins of tropical, semitropical and temperate regions. The
seeds are sown in prepared beds, and when the seedlings are
25 to 50 days old, they are transplanted to a field or paddy that has been
enclosed by leaves and submerged under 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) of water,
remaining submerged during the growing season (Rashid-Noah, 2003; and
Encyclopaedia Britannica Deluxe, 2004). Roughly 50% of the world population is
wholly dependent on rice as a staple food; 95 percent of the world's rice crop
is eaten by humans. Microsoft Student (2007) maintained that Asian countries
produced about 90 percent of the 576 million tons of rice grown worldwide in
2002.
The harvested rice kernel, (paddy or rough rice) is enclosed
by the hull or husk. Milling usually removes both the hull and bran layers of
the kernel, and a coating of glucose and talc is sometimes applied to give the
kernel glossy finish. The by-products of milling, including bran and rice polish
(finely powdered bran and starch resulting from polishing), are used as
livestock feed. Oil is processed from the bran for both food and industrial
uses. Broken rice is used in brewing, distilling, and in the manufacture of
starch and rice flour. Hulls are used for fuel, packing material, industrial
grinding, fertilizer manufacture, and in the manufacture of an industrial
chemical called furfural. The straw is used for feed, livestock bedding, roof
thatching mats, garments, packing material, and broom straws. In the late 20th
century, the world rice crop averaged between 800,000,000,000 and
950,000,000,000 pounds annually and was cultivated on an average of about
358,000,000 acres (145,000,000 hectares). (Encyclopaedia Britannica Deluxe,
2004).
According to FAO (2004) rice growing environment in Nigeria
are usually classified into five rice ecosystems namely: Rain-fed upland,
Rain-fed lowland, Irrigated lowland, Deepwater and Mangrove swamp.
The mangrove swamp ecology is the least important in terms of area,
accounting for less than 1% of total rice area. Another 5% of the rice
production area is generally estimated to fall in deepwater environment,
although it is believed that this figure is most likely overestimated given the
physical limits to area expansion within this environment. In general, of the
estimated 3 million metric tons of annual rice production in
Nigeria, three major rice production systems in Nigeria namely upland rain-fed,
lowland rain-fed and irrigated production account for 97% (Daramola, 2005).
According to West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) (2003), rice (Oryzae
Spp.) generates the largest contribution to household income in Nigeria. A
variety of rice production systems and technological levels coexist. WARDA
(2003) and Daramola (2005) maintained that lowlands without water control are
the main ecology followed by upland and irrigated rice. Rice production can be
found in each of the large geopolitical zones of the nation (e.g. Middle Belt)
based on ecology and ethnic traditions. These extend from the northern to
southern zones with most rice grown in the eastern states (Enugu, Cross River,
and Ebonyi States) and middle belt (Benue, Kaduna, Niger, Kogi and Taraba
States) of the country. Daramola (2005) observed that the middle belt of the
country (where Kogi State is located) enjoyed a comparative advantage in
production over the other parts of the country. Reports by WARDA (2003); and
Horna, Smale and von Oppen (2005), indicated that Kogi State produced at least
five percent (5%) of the total rice production in Nigeria. In 2000, Kogi’s
total output and yield mainly from wet season rice farming stood at 1,025,000
tons and 2.28 tons /ha (PCU, FMARD in WARDA, 2001). In Nigeria 1 million ha of
informal irrigation schemes sprang over flood plain areas along river valleys
(Musa, 2001). This is where rice farmers are in Kogi State mostly. An
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) sponsored study conducted
by Horna, Smale, and von Oppen (2005) noted that lowland (or swamp) rice
production was more important than upland production in Kogi State, although
upland rice was an alternative for small farmers with limited access to good
quality land. The study also observed that Kogi farmers had limited experience
in upland rice production.
Nigeria is West Africa’s largest producer of rice, producing
an average of 3.2 million tons of paddy rice (~ 2million tons of milled rice)
for the past 7-years (WARDA, 2001). Rice production is primarily by small-scale
producers, with low yield per hectare averaging about 1.47 tonnes/ha from farm sizes
of between 0.5 and 2 ha (WARDA, 2004 & FAO, 2004). This situation was
attributed to poor production systems, aging farming population and low competitiveness
with imported rice (Daramola, 2005). The low productivity from Nigerian rice
farms had necessitated huge dependence on importation of rice by the Federal
government over the years. (See Tables 2.1 and 2.2 for details). However, the
Federal Government had not been complacent about the above scenario. Many steps
taken in the past to boost rice production were not sustained. According to
WARDA, the programmes included: National Accelerated Food Production Programme
(NAFPP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), 1976-1979, Green Revolution
(1979-1983), and the River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) 1983-1985
(WARDA, 2003). However, these programmes were not specifically targeted at
boosting rice production. The Federal Government had put in place a National
Special Programme on Food Security, (NSPFS), whose objective was to ensure food
security in the broader sense and alleviate rural poverty in Nigeria. WARDA
(2003) noted that successive governments failed to implement these programmes
adequately. The administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo also launched the
Presidential Initiative on Rice Production and Fadama Development. WARDA noted
that this programme along with the New Partnership for Africa’s Development
(NEPAD) input delivery system and credit facility – conducive environments,
will serve as catalyst for increases in rice production. The report added that
“ government hopes to increase production of rice to get a firm grip and
control of poverty and hunger, unemployment and crime caused by the urge to
fill a basic need thereby ensuring environmental sustainability” (WARDA, 2003).
Import restrictions, tariffs and bans had been used to protect and boost local
production of rice in Nigeria. The high import duties of 100% in 1995 was
reduced in 1996 to 50% and later increased to 85% in 2001. According to Momoh
(2007) “twice, Nigeria fixed dates for a ban on importation of rice to Nigeria
and failed to implement the ban.” The ban was planned for 2006 and later
deferred to 2007. As at September 2007 the ban was yet to be implemented.
However, by May
2008 Nigeria’s government announced it will import 500,000 tonnes of rice up to
a value of US$600 million to
curtail the effect of the global rise in food prices on Nigeria. The decision
was taken after an emergency meeting between the Nigerian President, Umaru
Yar'Adua and the governors of Nigeria's 36 states (Integrated Regional
Information Networks, IRRI, 2008). The whole essence of this importation in the
short term was to create availability and reduce the skyrocketing prices. The
speculated ban was yet to be as at this moment. This is evidenced by a report
from Oryza (2008) which held that “market speculations that the ban on the
importation of brown rice is likely to be lifted soon were put to rest as
Nigeria's Federal Government reiterated commitment to sustain the ban in order
to encourage local production of paddy rice.” According to the Federal Ministry
of Agriculture and Water Resources, the report added, the ban is in the
country's prime interest as any such reversal would have be detrimental to the
nation's economy and would deny Nigerians employment opportunities and wealth
creation. Existing low level of productivity in food grain production reflect
low level of technical, allocative and economic efficiencies (CBN, 2003 &
Kolawole, 2006). Therefore, increasing agricultural growth is an indication of
appreciable growth in agricultural production process that is linked to farm
efficiency. Hence, farm productivity and efficiency is no longer debatable but
a necessity in view of imminent food deficit experienced in the country judged
by the over reliance on food importation in recent time (CBN, 2003).The
attempted imposition of ban on the importation of rice and other food stuff
that can be produced locally in the country is an indication that rice growers
in the country must leave up to the expectation of meeting the local demand. To
achieve this objective, effort must be taken to examine the productive
efficiency of the rice farmers in the country......
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