ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to
determine the negative and positive attitude to and practice of menstrual
hygiene among senior female secondary school students in Udenu local government
area, Enugu state. To achieve the purpose of the study, ten specific objectives
with corresponding research questions were posed and two hypotheses postulated.
Descriptive survey research design was used for the study. The population for
the study consisted of 7680 senior female secondary school students while
stratified sampling procedure was used to draw a sample of 384 students used
for the study. The instrument for data collection was 40 item researcher’s
designed questionnaire. The research questions were answered using means and
percentages while null hypotheses were tested using analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and chi-square statistics at .05 level of significance The following
results were obtained. Attitude towards personal hygiene (f = 19.894,
P=.000<.05) attitude towards selection of menstrual absorbents (f=28.675, P
=.000< .05), Attitude towards disposal (F =10.736, P =. 000< .05) and
attitude towards storage of menstrual absorbents (F=11.461, P =.000<.05).
The P- values were lesser than .05 level of significance at 2 and 283 degrees
of freedom. For the practices: practices towards personal hygiene (X2=
127.5,6, P=.000), selection of menstrual absorbents (X2=17.917
P=.000), disposal (X2 =97.292, P=. 000) and storage (X2=
42.965, p =. 000) with their corresponding P- values which are lesser than .05
level of significance at 8 degrees of freedom. Major findings show that age has
major effects on the attitudes and practices of menstrual hygiene among senior
female secondary students. It was recommended by the researcher that government
should expand and intensify education on menstrual hygiene so as curb these
negative attitudes and practices towards menstruation. It was also recommended
that appropriate waste disposal facilities such as toilets and incinerator
should be provided especially in schools to ensure adequate menstrual waste
disposal.
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Background to the Study
Menstruation is a phenomenon unique to all females. The onset of
menstruation represents a landmark even in pubertal development of the
adolescent girl. Menstruation a natural process in a woman’s life needs special
care from physical and psychological point of view. Menstrual hygiene
management is an issue that is insufficiently acknowledged and has not received
adequate attention from any quarter of the society (Arkutu, 1995). Menstruation
and the menstrual cycle are characterized by variability in volume, pattern and
regularities, which at the earlier stages of the development of the adolescent
can create emotional discomfort particularly to the poorly informed girl (Nair,
2011). The challenge of providing special facilities for girls reaching puberty
is a question far removed from the authorities. The lack of policy in this
regard is a major hurdle. Unfortunately, authorities have not yet realized the
fact that lack of facilities in school can force girls to remain absent from
schools and in the other hand, it would cause infectious diseases.
Statistically, United Nation Children Fund UNICEF in collaboration with
World Health Organization WHO (2005) had identified that 75 per cent of women
population had gynecological problems or complications as a result of poor
menstrual hygiene. This has resulted to infertility which also brought about
broken homes. In Nigeria, major cultural difference exists which to a large
extent influence several characteristics and attitude of people. Culturally,
amongst the Ibos, discussion on sexuality including menstruation is often
shrouded in secrecy, rarely is such discussion carried out even among adults
themselves. Abioye (2000) reported that some girls have no access to clean and
safe sanitary products and are subjected to restrictions in their daily
activities or lives because they are menstruating. Besides, the health problems
due to poor hygiene during menstruation are as a result of unaffordability of
facilities and inappropriate supply of sanitary products which may push them
temporarily or sometimes permanently out of school, having a negative impact on
the right to education.
Menstruation means the periodic discharge of blood and mucosal tissue
from the uterus accruing approximately monthly from puberty to menopause.
According to Chung (1981)
the first menstruation is considered as a symbol of transition from girlhood to
adulthood. Various aspects such as physiology, pathology and psychology of
menstruation have been formed to associate it with health and well-being of
women; hence it is an important issue concerning morbidity among female
population (Arkutu, 1995). Menstruation is the periodic shedding of the
endometrial (lining of the uterus) accompanied by blood loss that identifies
the reproductive years of a woman’s life (Arkutu,1995) Menstruation is a
natural phenomenon among matured females who experience shedding of blood for
one to seven days every month from the age of maturity until menopause (Abera,
2003). Menstruation refers to as the monthly bleeding of each menstrual cycle
of adolescent and adult women. Adiar (2008), stated that the first menstruation
(Menarche) usually, occurs at puberty typically between the ages of 11 and 16,
and periods continues until the menopause around the age of 45-50. However,
menstruation does not occur during pregnancy and can be suppressed or disrupted
in women who are breast feeding. Menstruation is part of the menstrual cycle
which helps a woman’s body to prepare for the possibility of pregnancy each
month. Snigh (2006) stated that the parts of the body involved in menstrual
cycle include: the uterus, cervix, vagina, fallopian tube, the brain and the
pituitary gland. Some girls start their menstrual periods as early as 10 years
of age and as late as 16 years old. The average age a girl begins menstruating
is 12 years (Jones, 1999).
Menstruation is one of the most important stages in a woman’s life.
Although, it is a natural process, is linked with several misconceptions which
sometimes results into adverse health conditions or outcomes (Abera, 2003).
Negligence in menstrual hygiene has resulted in biological and gynecological
problems across nations. The negative effects such as, vaginal tract
infections, urinary tract infection as well as, infertility are far-ranging on
the lives of girls and women, and on the wider development goal (Abera, 2003).
Neglecting menstrual hygiene could also have a negative effect on environment,
failing to provide disposal facilities for used sanitary products can result in
a significant solid waste. Up till day, poor menstrual hygiene in developing
countries has led to so many health problems. One of the main reasons behind
the issue is that menstruation is considered in many societies a hidden and
secret issue. Isolation of menstruating girls and restrictions
being imposed on them in the family has reinforced a negative attitude toward
this phenomenon.
A report from Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH, 2008), in South Asia
indicated that menstrual hygiene has been associated with a wide range of
health and psycho-social outcomes e.g., stress levels, fear, embarrassment, and
social exclusion. The situation in African cities is not much different. The
forum for African Women Educationist FAWE (1999) in Uganda observed that
menstruation and menstrual hygiene are the most important factors affecting
school drop-out among adolescent girls. According to the report, the cause lies
in a combination of poverty, tradition and taboos. The report further stated
that poor menstrual hygiene links to urinary or reproductive tract infections
and other reproductive health problems.
This is why hygiene related practices during menstruation are of
considerable importance for reproductive health. Good hygiene towards
menstruation such as use of sanitary pads and adequate washing of genital area
is essential for girls and women of reproductive age who need access to clean
and soft absorbent sanitary products, which in long run protect their health
(Fernade, 2008). Good hygiene prevents transmission of infections.
Hygiene refers to personal and environmental cleanliness which
particularly help to minimize exposure to germs. Hygienic practices vary
widely, and what is considered acceptable in one culture might not be
acceptable in another. Hygiene in home and everyday life setting play an important
part in preventing spread of infections. Hygiene is based on identifying the
routes of spread of pathogen and applying hygiene procedures and critical
points at appropriate times to break the chain of infection (Andrew, 1992). The
aim of personal hygiene is to promote standards of personal cleanliness within
the setting of the condition where people live. Personal hygiene include:
bathing, clothing, washing hands, and toilets, care of nails, feet and teeth,
personal appearance and inculcation of clean habits in the young. Environmental
hygiene deals with the home and other surroundings. It involves proper disposal
of waste, possible and adequate water supply, hygienic storage of food among
others. Poor environmental hygiene leads to health problems. Therefore, hygiene
practices during menstruation are of great important.
Menstrual hygiene is defined as a practice by which women and adolescent
girls use a clean material to absorb or collect menstrual blood, and this
material can be changed in privacy as often as necessary for the duration of
menstruation. Santha,(2011) stated that it also include using soap and water
for washing the body as required and having access to facilities to dispose
materials . Menstrual hygiene can be essential in ensuring that a woman’s
everyday life is not interrupted by menstruation. It ensures that a woman can
continue with her daily routine such as going to school, going to work or doing
household chores. It can also prevent potential situations of embarrassment
about her. Maintaining proper menstrual hygiene is important to the well being
and development of the body (Kadel, 2007). The author stated that, one should
bath regularly, use clean and dry feminine hygiene products such as sanitary
pads, napkins, tampon, and cloths among others and change them regularly during
menstruation. If a woman is using cloth, it is important that the woman
regularly wash them with soap and water, and dry them completely in the sun
before use; as damp clothing can carry germs that can lead to infection.
Menstrual hygiene of adolescents and young people is important to the
overall health and quality of life of any community. Ranjinj (2009) stated that
menstrual hygiene affects people’s quality of life, prevention of gynaecological
complications and makes way for sustainable development. In this study,
menstrual hygiene means conditions or practices especially cleanliness to be
exhibited by senior secondary students towards menstruation or while they are
menstruating in order to maintain good health. This study will be restricted to
some components as personal hygiene, selection of menstrual absorbents, proper
disposal of absorbents and storage. These components which formed the bedrock
of the study were highlighted below.
Personal hygiene may be described as the principle of maintaining
cleanliness and grooming of the external body. Abioye (2000) suggested that
failure to keep up a standard of hygiene can have many implications. Not only
is there an increased risk of getting an infection, but there are many social
and psychological aspects that can be affected. The author further stated that
one of the most effective ways one can protect his or herself and others from
illness is through the practice of good personal hygiene. This means, washing
one’s hands, especially, and also one’s body. Good habits can help control
body odour and bad breath. During menstruation, personal hygiene is a common
concern for most women, from bathing, showering to washing clothes, everything
requires tips for keeping body clean and maintaining a good health (Hahn,
1997). Women, especially girls going to school often have problems about
maintaining hygiene during periods. It is also very important that one keeps
oneself clean and dry. Daily or more frequent washing of the genital area is
very important. It helps to stop any odour or possible infection. Adiar (2001)
suggested that personal hygiene during menstruation explored included
information about bathing and showering buying and using sanitary products. The
author stated that it is essential to maintain strict hand washing before and
after changing sanitary products.
Hygiene products are materials or items worn by a woman while she is
menstruating to absorb the flow of blood from the vagina (Gupta, 2006). These
materials or items include sanitary towel, menstrual pad, cloths, tampons,
napkins and many more. The author stated that absorbents should be changed at
least 3-4 times daily. Napkins or cloths should be washed thoroughly, dried
well before re-use to avoid the invasion of micro organisms. The choice of
sanitary protection is very important and much more a personal decision. It is
always influenced by a woman or girls’ access to fund, water and other
affordable options. Again, the menstrual flow, that is, light or heavy is
another considerable factor in choosing any product .Once, a girl begins
menstruating, she needs to choose from the various menstrual products which are
available. The used or soiled absorbents should be properly discarded.
To dispose means to get rid of something. Disposal of menstrual hygiene
products after use is very much important. It is essential to discard the used
products properly because they are capable of spreading infections and have
offensive odour ( Harvey,2002).The authour stated that wrapping it well before
discarding it ensures that smell and infections are prevented. The unused
(clean) absorbents should be stored well.
Storage is the act of keeping things for future use. According to Rathus
(1983), keeping the unused menstrual products is very important, and helps to
make it available when needed. The author opined that, it is advised not to
keep the menstrual products in damp and humid places to avoid the outgrowth of
micro-organisms which can contaminate them. From the foregoing, one stands to
reason that acquisition of.....
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