ABSTRACT
This study examined the influence of parenting
styles and family support on readiness to change cannabis use in Enugu
metropolis. A total of four hundred and twenty seven (427) participants, 276
males and 151 females, ages 18-40 years (M = 25.31, SD = 5.44) were involved in
this study. They were selected using convenient and snow ball method from
street cannabis users in Abakpa, Emene, and Thinkers corner, Obiagu, Achalla
Layout and Garriki. Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), Perceived Social
Support Scale-Family (PSS-Fa) and Readiness to Change Questionnaire (RCQ) was
instruments used to collect data for the study.Correlation result indicated
that father’s authoritativeness, father’s authoritarianism; father’s permissiveness,
mother’s authoritativeness and mother’s permissiveness had significant
relationship with readiness to change cannabis use;while family support,
gender, age and mother’s authoritarianism had non- significant relationship
with readiness to change cannabis use.The data obtained for this present study
were cross checked for accuracy. In testing for parenting styles and family
support as factors of Readiness to change cannabis use, the data obtained from
the participants were analyzed by computing the means, standard deviations and
correlations among the variables of study as well as the demographic
variables.The first hypothesis tested in the study stated that parenting styles
(authoritative, authoritarian and permissive) of the father would significantly
predict readiness to change cannabis use among young adults. The result of the
study showed that among the three dimensions of father’s parenting styles, only
the father’s authoritativeness supported the hypothesis as it made a
statistically significant positive contribution in predicting readiness to
change cannabis use, while other dimensions (authoritarianism and
permissiveness) did not support the hypothesis because they did not make
statistically significant contributions in predicting readiness to change
cannabis use among the sampled young adults.The second hypothesis tested in the
study stated that parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian and
permissive) of the mother would significantly predict readiness to change
cannabis use among young adults. The result of the study showed that among the
three dimensions of mother’s parenting styles, none of the supported this
hypothesis because none turned out to significantly predict readiness to change
cannabis use among the sampled young.The third hypothesis tested in the study
stated that level of family support would significantly predict readiness to
change cannabis use among young adults. The result of the study did not support
this hypothesis because family support did not significantly predict readiness
to change cannabis use among the sampled young adults.It was also found that
none of the mothers parenting style and family support made statistically
significant contribution in predicting readiness to change cannabis use.
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the Study
According
to 2010 report of the United Nations on drugs and crime estimated that between
155 and 250 million people approximately or 3.5% to 5.7% of the world
population aged 15-64 have used drugs at least once in the last 12 months, There
is increasing trend in psychoactive substance use and abuse in African
countries (Adelekan, Ndom, Makajuola, Parakoyi, Osagbemi, Fabgemi, & Pute
2000 and Ready, Resnicow, Omardien, & Kambara, 2007). In this trend,
cannabis use and abuse is taking its fair share and mostly young adults are
trapped down in the mess.
This
trend seems to be very common or conversant during adolescent period spanning
though early adulthood and causing social, physical, health, and mental
complications; previous empirical studies indicate that both males and females
engage in the use of cannabis (World Drug Report, 2008). Nigeria for example,
where cannabis abuse was uncommon many decades ago, there is today ample visual
evidence of cannabis use on the roadsides and motor parks of most urban centers
where young adults could be seen using cannabis (Rasheed & Ismaila, 2010).
These increased usage, no doubt has a number of implications. Cannabis use and
abuse has continued to increase both social and public health issues.
World
Drug Report (2008) statistics held that about 200,000 peoples die from drug use
worldwide, affecting not only drug user but also the family members, friends,
co-workers and communities. Drug use (including the use of illicit drugs,
alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana/cannabis etc.) is widespread and this wide
distribution increases the burden of disease related and behavior related drug
use problem. According to World Health Organization Global status report on
marijuana and health, the harmful use of marijuana (cannabis) is a causal
factor in 60 types of diseases and injuries, resulting in appropriately 15
million deaths every year. These death make up almost 3% of all death worldwide
e.g. marijuana has been indicated to be responsible for 5 million deaths
annually, for most European and Asian
countries, opiates continue to be the main drug of abuse and account for 62% of
all treatment demand, in south America, drug related treatment continues to be
mainly linked to the use of cocaine (59% of all treatment demand), but in
African, the bulk of all treatment demand is link to cannabis 64% (WHO, 2004).
Cannabis,
commonly known as marijuana and numerous other names (India hemp, ganja, bush,
igbo, we-we, gbanaa, hashish etc.), is a preparation of the cannabis plant
intended for use as a psychoactive drug and as medicine (Harcout, 2007).
Pharmacologically, the principle of psychoactive constituent of cannabis is
tetrahydrocannabinol, it is one of the most 283 known compounds in the plant
(Russo, 2013) including at least 84 other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol,
cannabinol, tetrahydrocannabivarin, (El-Aify, Ivery, Robison, Ahmed, Radwan,
Slade, Khan, Elsohly & Rossb, 2010) and cannabigerol according to United
nation of drug commission UNODC (2009). The three main forms of cannabis products
are the flower, resin (hashish) and oil (hash oil). The UNODC (2009) states
that cannabis flower is often 5%tetrahydrocannabivarin, (THC) content, resin
can contain up to 20% THC content while, cannabis oil may contain more than 60%
THC content.
Cannabis
is being consumed in many different ways (Golubi, 2012): smoking, which
typically involves inhaling vaporized cannabinoids (smoke) from small pipes,
bongs (portable versions of hookahs with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints
or tobacco leaf-wrapped blunt, roach clips and other items (Tasman, Kay,
Lieberman, First & Maj, 2011). It has a proactive and physiological effects
when consumed (Conaivi, Sugiura, & Marzo, 2005). The immediate desired
effects of consuming cannabis include relaxation and mild euphoria (the “high
or stoned” feeling), while some immediately undesired side-effects include a
decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills and reddening
of the eyes, feeling of paranoid or anxiety (Hall & Paula, 2003). Aside
from a subjective change in perception and mood, the most common short-term
physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, increased
appetite and consumption of food lowered blood pressure, impairment of
short-term or working memory, (Mathre, 1997; Riedel & Darvies, 2005),
impaired psychomotor co-ordination and concentration.
Other
ways of using cannabis is as recreational or medicinal drug, and as part of
religious or spiritual rites. The medicinal value of cannabis is disputed; the
American Society of Addiction Medicine (2005) dismisses the concept of medical
cannabis because of concerns about its potential for dependence and adverse
health effects and that significant aspect such as content, production and
supply are unregulated. The FDA approves of the prescription of two products
(not for smoking) that have pure THC in a small controlled dose as the active
substance (Scholastic, 2012).
Cannabis
use became a public health issues in Nigeria in the 1960s with the discovery of
cannabis farm in the country, arrests of Nigeria cannabis trafficker abroad,
and reports of psychological disorders suspected to be associated with cannabis
use, (Obot, 2003). By the 1980s the abuse of cocaine and heroin was added to
the public health burden Soldiers and the sailors returning from Second World
War introduced cannabis in Nigeria (Obot, 2003). The most abused illicit drug
in Nigeria is India hemp mainly in its herbal form. This is due to the fact
that cannabis is home grown and relatively cheap, the price of one unit of cannabis
is often about the same as that of a bottle of beer (UNODC, 2013). At 14.3%,
the country has the highest one year prevalence rate of cannabis use in Africa
(UNOGC, 2011, Onifade, Somoye, Ogunwale, Akinhanmi, &Adason, 2013).
The
burden of use and effects of marijuana and other psychoactive substances on the
youth is assuming a dangerous dimension (Eneh, 2004; Pela, 1989 and Stanley
& Saline 1991). In a study by Eneh (2004) among secondary schools students
in River State Nigeria, the prevalence rate of cannabis use was found to be
20%. However, like study among young adult and high school in Zambia and
Santiago Chile bad prevalence rate of 10% and 7.3% respectively (Haworth 1982:
Florenzo, Mautelli, Madrid, Martini & Salazar, 1982).
In
a neurological study by Albert, Bhattacharyya, Yucel, Poli, Crippa, Nogue,
Torrens, Puyol, Farre and Santors, (2013) comparing different structural and
functional imaging studies showed morphological brain alteration in the
long-term cannabis users which were found to possibly correlate to cannabis
exposure, further more study by Santors, Fagundo, Crippa, Atakan, Bhattacharyya
and Allen (2010) found resting blood flow to be lower globally and in
prefrontal areas of the brain in cannabis users, when compared to non-users. It
was also shown that giving cannabis correlate with increased blood flow in
these areas, and facilitated activations of the anterior cingulated cortex and
frontal cortex when participants were presented with assignment demanding use of
cognitive capacity. Both reviews noted that some of the studies that they
examined had methodological limitations, for example, small sample size, or not
distinguishing adequately between cannabis and alcohol consumption.
Within
the treatment field, there is growing recognition that individuals vary in
their readiness to change (Carey, Purnine, Maisto&Carey, 1999A). For
instance, Prochaska, Diclements & Norcross (1992) have provided a useful
heuristic for understanding varying levels of motivation for change, within
their trans-theoretical model, they represent the continuous and cyclic process
by which people change addictive behaviors as Pre-contemplation, Contemplation,
Preparation for action and Maintenance. It is noted that the vast majority of
persons addicted to substance are not in the action stage (Prochaska &
Diclements, 1992). Even persons admitted to alcohol and drug treatment programs
vary in their level of motivation for change (Diclement, & Hughes, 1990).
Readiness
to change may be considered a motivational state that is strong influence by
cognitive, affective, environmental and interpersonal events (Diclemente,
1993). In addition, the notion of decisional balance (eg, subjective pro and
cons or benefits and cost of certain behavior) has been identified as a related
construct that is a sensitive marker of normal movement through the early
stages of change (Prochaka, Velicier & Rossi, 1999a). It is important to
distinguish between readiness to change and motivation for change.
Readiness
to change is the overarching construct motivation for change and can be
considered an internal cognition, affective state considered necessary for
behavior change (or maintenance of change). Motivation to change, on the other
hand, can be considered a broader construct, reflecting a number of factors
that combine to indicate the likelihood that someone will begin (continue) to
engage in behavior associated with cannabis use reduction (eg, including
therapy, self-initiated quit attempts, or other behavior in support of reduced
use) (Carey, Purnine, Maisto, Carey & Barnes 1999b). Readiness to change,
therefore includes motivation for change as well as other factors, Relevant
behavioral skills and barriers may be presumed to affect motivation, through
various paths e.g, a patient may be more likely to engage in change related
behaviors if he/she willing to change and if he/she has acquired the skills
that make success more likely and he/she receives support and reinforcement
from change efforts, a person with low motivation and few resources may first
benefit from a motivational intervention, followed by skills training
(Carrol,1998).
It
is estimated that approximately one in six problem cannabis user accesses
treatment each year (United Nation on Drug and Crime, 2014). However there are
large regional disparities, with approximately 1 to 8 problem drug users
receiving treatment in African (primarily for cannabis use), compared to one in
five problem drug users receiving treatment in western and central Europe, one
in four in Oceania and one in three in north America, (United Nations on Drugs
and Crime, 2014).
The
present study seeks to examine the contribution of role of parenting style and
family support in readiness to change cannabis use among young adults. Within
the field of addictive behaviors, a growing number of studies have assessed
efficacy of parenting style based on interventions for problematic substance
use (Chiesa & Serretti, 2013). Neurobiological mechanisms in areas
associated with craving, negative effect, and substance use relapse may be
affected by parenting style of training (Witkiewits, Lustyk, & Bowen, 2012)
altering basic neurological process related to reactive behaviors (Brewer,
Elwafi & Davis, 2012).
Parenting
style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that
parents use in their child rearing. The quality of parenting can be more
essential than the quantity of time spent with the child. For instance, a
parent can spend an entire afternoon with his or her child, yet the parent may
be engaging in a different activity and not demonstrating enough interest
towards the child. Parenting styles are the representation of how parents
respond to and make demands on their children. Parenting practices are specific
behaviors, while parenting styles represent broader patterns of parenting
practices.
Darling
and Steinberg (1993) in Spera (2005)suggest that it is important to better
understand the differences between parenting styles and parenting practices:
"Parenting practices are defined as specific behaviors that parents use to
socialize their children", while parenting style is "the emotional
climate in which parents raise their children".
Baumrind
(1967) considered four basic elements that could help shape successful
parenting: responsiveness vs. unresponsiveness and demanding vs. undemanding.
Parental responsiveness refers to the degree to which the parent responds to
the child's needs in a supportive and accepting manner. Baumrind identified
three parenting styles: Authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting and
permissive parenting. Baumrid (1996) described three styles as follow:
·
The permissive parent: attempts to
behave in a non-punitive, acceptant and affirmative manner towards the child’s
impulses, desires, and actions (e.g. poor emotion regulation etc.). The parent
is responsive but not demanding. Children of permissive parents may tend to be
more impulsive and as adolescents may engage more in misconduct such as
cannabis use (Osorio, Alfonso, González-Cámara and Marta, 2015).
·
The authoritarian parent: attempts to
shape control and evaluate the behavior and attitudes of the child in
accordance with a set standard of conduct, usually an absolute standard,
theologically motivated, and formulated by a higher authority, the parent
values obedience as a virtue and favors punitive, forceful measures to curb
self-well at points where the child’s actions or belief conflict with what she
think is right conduct (Anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy disposition etc). The
parent is demanding but not responsive. Children raised by authoritarian
parents tend to be conformist, highly obedient, quiet, and not very happy,
these children often suffer from depression and self-blame.
·
The authoritative parent: attempts to
direct the child’s activities but in a rational, issue oriented manner. The
parent is demanding and responsive.Authoritative parents will set clear
standards for their children, monitor the limits that they set, and also allow
children to develop autonomy. They also expect mature, independent, and
age-appropriate behavior of children. Punishments for misbehavior are measured
and consistent, not arbitrary or violent (1996:889).
1.2
Statement of Problem
Cannabis
use in Nigerian Society has become an issue of serious concern and constitutes one
of the most important risks taking behavior among young adult. According to
Boryelt, Franson, Nassbaum and Wang (2013), safety concerns regarding cannabis
use include the increased risk of developing schizophrenia with adolescent use,
impairment in memory and cognition, accident pediatric ingestions and lack of
safety packaging for medical cannabis formulations. The same thing implies
Gordon and Conley (2013) report that exposure to cannabis have
biologically-based physical, mental, behavior and social health consequences
and was associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing
hepatitis C), lungs, heart and vasculature.
In
the area covered by the present study- Enugu metropolis, there are many
cannabis users almost in all the layouts, streets and suburbs irrespective of
the continual outlook of the law enforcement agencies National Drug Law
Enforcement Agencies (Police and NDLEA) for them. Almost everybody within
places like Abakpa, Emene, Obiagu, Thinkers’ Corner, Ugwuaji fly-over axis,
Monarch, Achalla Layout, New Haven Extension/Old Artisan, ESUT axis of
Independent Layout and many other places have either a personal or learned
story to tell about the menace of cannabis (“igbo”) users.
The
series of problems associated with the use of cannabis have raised serious
concern for awareness and treatment. Notwithstanding the worldwide concern and
education about cannabis uses (the effects to both the person and the society
at large), many users have limited awareness of their abuses’ consequences
(Eneh, 2004) and very few of the users assess treatment or develop the
willingness to assess treatment. This raises research concern for the
evaluation of social factors that can influence young adults’ readiness to
change from the use of cannabis and hence the drive of the present study. There
is need to see the position of the behaviors of authority figures in the home
(parents) and the support perceived to come from all the component members of
the home in pushing or motivating young adults to engage in the change process
from the use of cannabis.
Specifically,
the present study intends to address the following problems.
1.
Would role of parenting style
significantly influence readiness to change cannabis use among young adults?
2.
Would family support significantly
influence readiness to change cannabis use among young adults?
1.3
Purpose of the Study
1.
Examine whether parenting style
(authoritative, authoritarian and permissive) of the father will influence
readiness to change cannabis use among young adults.
2.
Examine whether parenting style
(authoritative, authoritarian and permissive) of the mother will influence
readiness to change cannabis use among young adults.
3.
Examine whether level of family support
will influence readiness to change cannabis use among young adults.
1.4
Operational Definitions Of Terms.
Parenting
style: parenting style represent the overall climate of
parent child interactions or standard strategies that parents use in their
child rearing measured using the Parental Authority Questionnaire by Buri
(1991) which was developed in line with the Baumrind’s three dimension of
parenting: authoritativeness, authoritarianism and permissiveness.
Family Support: Family support is the
extent to which individual perceives that his/her needs for support,
information and feedback are fulfilled by family members measured using the the
Perceived Social Support Scale-Family (PSS-Fr) adapted from the Perceived
Social Support Scale by Procidano and Heller (1983).
Readiness
to Change Cannabis Use: This is an individual’s personal
feelings about his/her cannabis use at the present time which identifies
him/her in either of the Pre-contemplation, Contemplation and Action decision
level of whether or not he/she wish to change his cannabis use behavior. This is
measured using the 12-item Readiness to Change Questionnaire (RCQ) by Heather
and Rollnick (1993).
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