ABSTRACT
This study
investigated the relationship between child labour and school attendance among
primary school pupils in Esan land. The study focused on two (2) forms of child
labour: hawking and servitude. The study was undertaken to determine the
influence of hawking and servitude on school attendance of male and female
pupils. The correlational method based on survey research design was adopted
for the study. A population of 16,266 public primary school pupils (8,765 males
and 7,501 females) was covered. A total of 814 pupils were drawn by multi-stage
sampling technique while a self-developed Checklist on Child labour and School
Attendance Inventory with a reliability coefficient (α) of 0.62 was used to
collect data from pupils. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to
test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Findings revealed among
others that:there was no significant relationship between hawking and school
attendance among public primary school pupils in Esan land. On the other hand,
no significant relationship was found between servitude and school attendance
among public primary school pupils (male and female) in Esan land. Based on
result, it was concluded that there is high incidence of child labour (hawking
and servitude) among primary school pupils in Esan land. The result seemingly
showed that hawking and domestic services among pupils are probably carried out
very early (briefly before school hours) and/or in the evenings (shortly after
school hours) in the area. Consequently, the effect of domestic servitude and
hawking activities was hardly noticeable in the school attendance. However, it
was recommended that the state government should reinforce the law against
child labour by declaring house-to-house campaign on the ‘evils’ of child
labour in Esan land.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Child labour and
school attendance has become a topical and growing issue to children, the family,
schools, journalists, psychologists, sociologists, politicians,
philanthropists, counsellors, literary artists and the society at large.
Education in Nigeria is compulsory for a child that is below the age of 14. The
National Policy on Education (1998), revised three years after the 1995 Beijing
Declaration, clearly stated in Section 1 Sub-section 4c of the National Policy
on Education (2004) “that every Nigerian child
shall have a right to equaleducational opportunities irrespective of any
real or imagined disabilities…...” (p.7). In pursuance of this, in September
1999, the President of Nigeria (Chief Olusegun Obasanjo) launched the new Universal
Basic Education (UBE) plan that requires the first nine years of schooling to
be free and compulsory (Education For All, 2001) the plan aims at improving the
relevance, efficiency, and quality of schools and to create programmes to
address the basic educational needs of nomadic and out–of–school children,
youth and adults (Felix, 1999). In its 2000 budget, the government of Nigeria budgeted
46million naira (US$ 230,000) to support this plan (EFA, 2000).
School
attendance is a measure of the number of time a child is present in school.
This shows clearly the amount or period of time a child comes to school. The
amount is measured with the document called school register. The school
register which consistsof name, admission number of the child is marked both
morning and afternoon on a daily and weekly basis. Regular attendance indicates
that the pupil is not under the threat of child labour. Another dimension of
school attendance is completely staying away from school as a result of child
labour. In this case, children are made to stay away from school by their
parents in preference for hawking or domestic servitude.
Even though,
recent school attendance rates are unavailable for Nigeria, enrolment rates
indicate a level of commitment to education. However, they do not always
reflect a child’s participation in school (Country Reports 2000). Gross primary
school enrolment declined in Nigeria from approximately 86.2 percent in 1993 to
70.3 percent in 1996 (UNESCO, 2000) and the ratio increased in 2000 to about
118.5. Also, there seems to be a low gross and net school enrolment and
attendance in Nigeria. Dropout rates for both males and females in primary
school remained high, around 10 to 15 percent between 1990 and 1994 for each
level of education. Only 64 percent of the pupils in primary school completed class
six, and only 43.5 percent continued on to junior secondary school (Country
Reports, 2000). Also there are reports of a bias against girl-child education,
particularly in rural northern areas of Nigeria that only 42 percent of rural
girls enrolled in schools compared with 72 percent of urban girls and that in
the north, girls are often withdrawn from schools and placed into early
marriages, domestic and agricultural labour, or commercial activities such as
trading and street hawking.
The world
demographic profile shows that Nigeria isthe tenth most populous country
represents one-fifth of the population of the Africa continent. Various
population censuses have consistently shown that children between 0-14 years
constitute a significant proportion of the population of Nigeria. The first
census, conducted in 1962 – 63, showed that out of 55.7 million people, 43.1%
were children. The result of the 1991 population count indicates that out of
about 88.6 million people, about 45% were children between 0-14 years. The
details of the 2006 census show that children constitute quite a percentage of the
nation’s population which shows that children represent a significant
proportion ofNigeria’s population.
This child – related demographic data have led
to increased calls for a separate government ministry to handle issues related
to the welfare of children through which some rights of the child can be
guaranteed. The UN General Assembly International Convention of Civil and
Political Rights resolution in 1996, article 24 of The African Charter on the
Rights and Welfare of the child (to which Nigeria is a signatory), the Child
Rights Act approved by the Nigeria Parliament which adopts the UN convention
and the AU Charter on the Rights of the Child all stipulated that “the child is
entitled to receive free and compulsory education, and shall be protected
against all forms of neglect, cruelty and exploitation”.
The
achievement of the Child’s Right Act in education has suffered serious setback,
especially in the countries of Sub-Sahara Africa as a result of the current global
economic crisis. This has hit hard on the ‘dependent economy’ of Sub-Sahara
African countries with the resulting consequences for the welfare of Nigerian
children. The poor welfare of the Nigeria child is an effect of the
socio-economic conditions of their parents. Various reports have shown that
Nigerian children are increasingly engaging in alternative jobs (child labour)
for survival.
The compulsory,
free Universal Basic Education Act (2004) provides for free and compulsory
education for children until the age of 15. The Federal Constitution of Nigeria
(1999) also provides for free and compulsory primary education “when
practicable”. However, the term “practicable” introduces ambiguity in the
concept of free universal compulsory education, which does not yet fully exist
in Nigeria. Although, the laws provides
for free and compulsory education but it is not systematically enforced, so children
are more likely to enter the worst forms of child labour in order to pay for
their school fees and fend for their immediate families. The inadequate facilities,
school fees and child labour may also deter enrolment and school attendance
(US, Department of State, 2012).
One of the aims
of the Millennium Development Goal on Education is to provide “all children
with access to education”. This is an important goal because it is believed
that through qualitative modern formal education, future generation will have
the ability to reduce or put an end to world poverty and help to achieve worldwide
peace and security. The goal of education for all children, so agreed, could
only be achieved through a systematically organized school system, with
regulated periods of education, a standardized curriculum and content. The
situation with children may not have improved considering various reports from
officials of government agencies, non-governmental agencies, international
donor agencies and other stakeholders involved in the welfare of children.
However, about
15% of students dropped out of school because they could not keep up with class
work, having missed too many days and not being able to catch up with their
studies at school. This report states that most children drop out of school within
a few years before completing primary school or a few years into secondary
school. While some experience significant academic challenges resulting from
truancy and lack of required academic materials, most students could have
succeeded in school if everything is made available. A 2006 study of the
International Labour Organization (ILO) found a staggering fifteen million children
under the age of 14 engaged in various forms of child labour across Nigeria.
These children were exposed to long hours of work in dangerous, unhealthy and
competitive environment. This, according to the reports, results from the
inability of parents and government to fully take responsibility for the child’s
welfare. Real life experiences have shown that governments at all levels have
failed to provide totally free qualitative education for children. The
situation has continued to worsen as a result of the current global economic
crisis. In 2000, Nigeria joined over 170 countries that met in Dakar, Senegal
to reaffirm their commitment to deliver education for all citizens by 2015.
Information
posted on the Internet by African Press on 25 April 2008, quoted the Nigerian
Minister of Education, who said “it was lamentable that about eleven million
children, out of which 4.7 million were of primary school age and 5.3 million
of secondary school age, roamed the streets in the country” and were engaged in
all forms of child labour to support their education and family household. A
newspaper article in PUNCH of 25 March, 2008, credited to the media advisory
unit of UNICEF, indicated that “no less than 10 million children of school age
are out of school in Nigeria” (UNICEF, 2009).
In
2006, key UNICEF data showed that an estimated 93 million children worldwide is
subjected to violence, exploitation, abuse and child labour. The report showed
an estimated 93 million children of primary school age were not attending
school. UNICEF reported in 2006 that Nigeria children, some of whom either had
not attended school formally or who had dropped out of school, were engaged in
various forms of labour either for their education or to support their family
households. Specifically, report data showed that Nigerian children work in the
following occupations: Street hawking (64%), Domestic servitude (13%), Shoe
shiners (4%), Car washers (6%), Scavengers (5%) and foot washers (8%) (UNICEF,
2009). These children are engaged in alternative jobs to support their schooling,
parents and guardians.
Child labour
remains a major source of concern in Nigeria, in spite of legislative measures.
All efforts at stopping this exploitative and hazardous phenomenon have proved
abortive. According to the International Labour Organization (2010), the number
of ‘working children’ under the age of 14 in Nigeria is estimated at 15million.
The high level of diverse and tedious jobs children execute in dangerous circumstances
is particularly worrisome. These jobs include being street hawkers, beggars,
car washers or watchers and shoe shiners.Others work as domestic servants -
mechanics, hair dressers and bus conductor and a large number work as ‘farm
hands’.
Child labour
refers to ‘work carried out to the detriment of the child, mentally,
physically, socially and morally’. It is characterized by denial of the right
of children to education and other opportunities; children’s separation from
their families; and poor working conditions.The poor working conditions include;
long working hours, poor working environment, heavy work regardless of age and
sex; and so on. In the same vein Dunapo(2002) states emphatically that child labour
occurs when children are exposed for long hours in a dangerous, life
threatening and unhealthy environment with too many responsibilities for their
age.
Child labour is
not limited to sub-Saharan Africa, it goes beyond the region. The experience is
different depending on the kind of child labour such a person could be involved
whichranges from domestic labour, hawking, prostitution.Major causes of child
labour are widespread poverty, rapid urbanization, breakdown in extended family
affiliations, high school dropout rates, and lack of enforcement of legal
instruments meant to protect children. Traditionally, children are made to work
with their families because there is dignity in labour, but today children are
forced to work for their own and their family survival. The money earned has
become a significant part of poor families’ income. These children who work
suffer from fatigue, irregular attendance at school, lack of comprehension, and
motivation, improper socialization, exposure to risk of sexual abuse and high
likelihood of being involved in crimes.
In Nigeria,
primary school children are well known for hawking in the streets and domestic
services. To help their parents, the kids sell goods such as towels, plastics,
and leather bags, chairs and such other items. Some pupils spend time hawking
and doing domestic services during school sessions in order to get money to
either pay for their school fees or to help their family.But some of them who
made huge income eventually consider the need to drop out of school instead of wasting
time in the school and prefer to continue when the school resumes.
According to
United States Department of Labour (USDL) (2012) in 2012, Nigeria made minimal
advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labour. The
National Steering Committee for the Elimination of the Worst Form of Child Labour
in Nigeria (NSCWEWFCLN) appointed a committee to identify child labour and they
came with the findings that child labour involves hazardous tasks or work. The steering
committee also supported the development of curriculum to increase the capacity
of school teachers and managers who work with the Almajiri (children who are
often forced into begging after being sent to study and live with Islamic
Scholars) through the Almajiri Education Programme. Gap remained in
legislation, such as a minimum age that falls below international standards,
and in social protection programme. In addition, the number of labour
inspectors and inspections decreased during the period, children in Nigeria
continued to engage in the worst forms of child labour, particularly domestic
service (servitude) and street hawking.
Despite several
measures to combat child labour, it continues unabated and remains great
concern in Nigeria. The Nigeria Child’s Rights law which took into account the Rights
of the Child guaranteed in the United Nations’ Convention in the Rights of the Child
was passed in law in 2003. But 10 years after its incorporation in the Nigeria
law, the child labour situation has worsened as millions of children are still
engaged in child labour activities. The International Labour Organization
estimates that about 25 percent of Nigeria’s 80million children under the age
of 14 are involved in child labour (Akomolafe, 2014).
In a similar
vein, Conditional Cash Transfer Service (CCTS), programme (a 3 year pilot
scholarship programme) in partnership with ESSPIN-UKAID), the World Bank and
Kano State Ministry of Education to support girls transiting from primary to
junior secondary school, is to stop Street hawking. The CCTS is a small cash
payment made to the families of girls to cover the incidental costs of
attending schools (e.g. Uniforms, stationery) and offset the lost income from
street hawking, keep them off the street and safe from the physical and
psychological abuse they may encounter while hawking. This has affected
enrolment, attendance and performance significantly, though hawking remains
part and parcel of children in Kano in particular and in Nigeria in general.
According to the
2010 Nigeria Education Survey and Digest of Education Statistics (NEDS)
reported witnessed by Vice President Namadi Sambo, 21% of children of age 5-16
cannot read at all in the South-west compared to 31% in the south-south, 32% in
the south-east, 58% in the North-central 42%, North-west 61% and North-east
73%.Efforts by the government to deliver free and compulsory education to
Nigeria children at primary and junior secondary school level through the
Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme launched in 1999 has so far been
ineffective. The public schools lack basic infrastructure and are therefore not
conducive for effective teaching and learning. The slow adoption and
non-enforcement of the Child Rights Act in some states of the federation as
well as high level of poverty continue to worsen the plight of the Nigerian
child (Nsisong & Eme, 2012).
Basic or primaryeducation
is the bedrock and foundation of our educational system.This prompted the Federal
Government of Nigeria to declare free and compulsory primary education to all
Nigerian child irrespective of their socio-economic status as stated in
National Policy on Education(2004), yet most pupils are seen during school
hours hawking and highly involved indomestic servitude. Secondly, experience is
the best teacher. The researcher had the experience of hawking during her
primary education days.This gives the researcher the urge to carry out a thorough
investigation on the problem of child labour and school attendance to really
verify if child labour has relationship with school attendance. Thirdly,in view
of the increasing global emphasis on school attendance, there is the need to
systematically examine the relationship between school attendance and child
labour.
Statement of the
Problem
Historically,
hawking appears to be part of Nigerian culture and understandingly so. Nigeria
being among the poorest economies of the world with the accompanying effects of unemployment, poor infrastructural
facilities and lack of human empowerment, has seen most of her population
living in abject poverty, therefore, because of the low social–economic status
of most families in Nigeria and the high rate of poverty, most parents cannot
help but push their children into the streets where they spend long hours, at
the mercy of environmental elements selling pure water (Sachet water), fruits,
confectioneries, beverages and such other items, so that the proceeds may
contribute to family upkeep (Nsisong & Eme, 2012). This situation is
alarming because street hawking in the form of child labour and servitude
(child domestics) among primary school pupils is on the increase in Esanland in
Edo State. The problem emanating from the practice of child labour by any
society is related to academic performance and school attendance of pupils.
Researches show
that child workers display poor school attendance and educational achievements.
They also suffer the triple burden of house work, school work and work out of
home whether paid or unpaid. Two of the most common practices are street
hawking by children and child domestics (servitude). According to Nsisong and
Eme (2012) street hawking and servitude (child domestic) has significantly
contributed to truancy and low school attendance among children of school age.
His position was corroborated by Ekpenyong&Sibiri (2011) who found that the
prevalence of street hawking is proliferating among children of school age and
must be addressed as a national emergency situation. He posited that the
proliferation of hawking and servitude among children in primary school have
resulted in low school attendance and drop out among them.
Records
and experiences have shown that the poor school attendance of primary school
pupils has reached an alarming level. The phenomenon has persisted despite
efforts of government and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to eradicate it
through advocacy. There are few studies on the relationship between child
labour and school attendance in Edo State and none in Esan land. This is why
this study is necessary as questions need to be asked concerning the prevalence
of child labour and how it affects school attendance among primary school
pupils. Also, inquiries need to be made into the relationship between child
labour and school attendance. In this regard, could hawking and domestic
servitude be significant predictors of school attendance among primary school
pupils in Esan land?
Purpose of the Study
The
overall aim of the study is to examine the relationship between child labour
and school attendance among primary school pupils in Esan land.The specific
objectives of the study are to:
- ascertain
the relationship between hawking and primary school attendance among
primary school pupils in Esan land.
- ascertain
the relationship between hawking and male school attendance in Esan land.
- determine
the relationship between hawking and female school attendance in Esan
land.
- ascertain
the relationship between servitude and primary school attendance among
primary school pupils in Esan land.
- determine
the relationship between servitude and male school attendance in Esan
land.
- find
out the relationship between servitude and female school attendance in
Esan land.
Research Questions
The
following research questions guided the study:
1)
Is thereany relationship between hawking
and school attendance among primary school pupils in Esan land?
2) Is there any relationship between hawking and
school attendance among male Primary school pupils in Esan land?
3) Is
there anyrelationship between hawking and school attendance among female
Primary school pupils in Esan land?
4) Is
there anyrelationship between servitude and school attendance among primary
school pupils in Esan Land?
5) Is
there anyrelationship between servitude and school attendance among male primary
school pupils in Esan land?
6)
Is there anyrelationship between servitude
and school attendance among female primary school pupils in Esan land?
Hypotheses
The
following hypotheses were tested in the study.
1)
There is no significant relationship
between hawking and school attendance among primary school pupils in Esan land.
2) There
is no significant relationship between hawking and school attendance among male
primary school pupils in Esan land.
3) There
is no significant relationship between hawking and school attendance among
female Primary school pupils in Esan land.
4) There
is no significant relationship between servitude and school attendance among
primary school pupils in Esan land.
5) There
is no significant relationship between servitude and school attendance among
male primary school pupils in Esan land.
6)
There is no significant relationship
between servitude and school attendance among female primary school pupils in
Esan land.
Significance of the
Study
The
findings of the study would contribute to the body of knowledge and increase
information in the area of child labour and school attendance. Therefore, it
will be of immense importance to counsellors as it helps in developing
appropriate approaches and interventions in managing the menace of child
labour. Psychologists will find the study useful in developing interventions
for helping primary school pupils out of their worries, while the educational
sector in general will find the study useful in formulation of educational
policies.
The
study will also be of benefit to parents and guardians of primary school
pupils. The parents and guardians will be conscious of the ill-treatment of
their children and wards, and stop indulging them in child labor. It will also
reduce the act of exposing their children to truancy and other vices associated
with child labour, and ultimately embrace the fact that child labour is an
infringement in the dignity of a child.
The
study will be of great assistance to the federal, state and local government
ministries of education and social welfare department (policy makers) in having
a clearer perception of the causes of child labour and relationship between
child labour and school attendance. Moreso, it will also highlight variables
that cause child labour and its effects on school attendance, and will be of
benefit to education service providers with a view to ensuring that strong
advocacy is put in place to reduce or eradicate child labour. The study will
enable educational policy makers to make policies and enabling legislations
that will help in reducing or eradicating child labour. This will help in
increasing school attendance. Lastly, findings would help educational service
providers-educators with a moreprovoked finding of the study to engage in more
research work on child labour and school attendance.
Scope of the Study
This
study is designed to examine the relationship between child labour and school
attendance among primary school pupils in Esan land. The scope of this study is
limited to hawking and servitude and irregularity in the area of school
attendance.Though, there are other aspects of child labour such as child
prostitution, child trafficking, and sexual exploitation, scavengers and bus
conductors among other; but, this work is limited to hawking and servitude
because they are the most noticed and practiced in this area.
Three schools
were chosen from each local government area of Esan land, two sited in the
urban areas, while one in the rural areas. The population was also restricted
to primary 3-6 pupils which are the higher classes of primary education who
will be able to respond to the questionnaire based on their experiences
Limitations of the
Study
Essentially,
the study focuses on examining the relationship between child labour and school
attendance among primary school in Esan land of Edo State. The population of
the study consists of public primary school pupils in Esan land. The study
covers pupils in primary 3 – 6 while those in primary 1 – 2 were excluded. The
study uses primary 3 – 6 because pupils within this range can at least read and
write to some extent and are able to respond to the questionnaire while pupils
in primary 1-2 were excluded because they might not be able to read and
understand the question and so may be unable to express their feelings
appropriately.Because of the small geographical area covered and the
educational level of the pupils, generalization may be limited. In addition,
time and finance were also major problems encountered by the researcher.
Operational Definition
of Terms
The following terms were
operationally defined in the study:
Child
labour - refers to the employment of children in
any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their
ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or
morally dangerous and harmful.
Hawking – This isthe act of selling
goods and services from one place to another in seeking buyers for their wares.
Servitude –This is the involvement
of a child in rendering strenuous services at home, street as domestic
servants.
School attendance-A record to show
regularity and irregularity or outright withdrawal from school of a child
Esan land –This refers to Central
Senatorial District of Edo State which is promptly dominated by Esan people.
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