ABSTRACT
A
field experiment was carried out to determine the effects of planting dates on
the forage, grain yield and mineral composition of two varieties of millet
(Pennisetum typhoides Burm .F.) in a forest- savanna transition zone of Edo
state. The experiment was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of the
Faculty of Agriculture, Ambrose Alli University, Emaudo Annex, (Long. 60081 E
and Lat.6o451 N) Ekpoma. The experiment was a 2x5 factorial scheme fitted into
a randomized complete block design (RCBD). The treatments consisted of two
millet varieties (Gero bida and Gero badeggi), and five planting dates (April,
May, June, July and August) replicated three times. Data collected included
plant height, number of leaves/plant, branches/plant, tillers/plant, total leaf
area/plant, stem girth, days to 50% flowering and maturity, number of terminal
panicles/plant, tiller panicles/plant, branch panicles/plant, length of
terminal panicle, husk weight, weight of 1000 seeds, number of seeds/panicle,
total grain weight, forage yield and dry matter yield. Mineral composition and
nutrient uptake were also determined. Data were statistically analyzed, using
analysis of variance (ANOVA). Duncan multiple range test was used to separate
the means. Gero badeggi planted in April significantly had the tallest plants
(233.58 cm), highest number of leaves/plant (13.58), total leaf area/plant
(15075.43 cm2) and stem girth (2.61 cm) while Gero bida planted in August had
the shortest plants (166.41 cm), least number of leaves/plant (7.00), total
leaf area/plant (5345.99 cm2), and stem girth (1.68 cm). Gero bida and Gero
badeggi planted in May and April recorded the highest number of branches/plant
(3.78) and tillers/plant (5.42), respectively, while the least number of
branches/plant (1.67) and tillers/plant (1.08) were recorded for Gero badeggi
and Gero bida planted in June and July and Gero bida planted in August,
respectively. Gero bida planted in May, flowered (54.67 days) and matured (79
days) earlier than the other variety and planting dates. Generally, Gero
badeggi planted in April had the longest panicle (81.58 cm), highest number of
tiller panicles/plant (4.33). Gero badeggi planted in May had the highest
number of seeds/panicle (12301.33). However, Gero bida planted in June had the
highest number of branch panicles/plant (2.83). The highest (27.64 t/ha) forage
yield and dry matter yield (5.80 t/ha) were recorded for Gero badeggi planted
in April and the least (10.94 t/ha) forage yield and dry matter yield (2.49
t/ha) were recorded for Gero bida planted in June. Total grain yield was
significantly (P<0.05) highest in Gero badeggi planted in May (9.33 t/ha)
while Gero bida planted in July (4.27 t/ha) had the least. There was no
significant relationship between temperature and the dry matter and forage
yield of the millet varieties. Rainfall negatively correlated with forage and
grain yield of the millet varieties. Number of tillers/plant had negative
correlation with grain yield but was positive with all other yield and yield
parameters measured in the millet varieties. Panicle length, number of
seeds/panicle and 1000 seed weight were positively correlated with yields for
both varieties. Early plantings (April/May) had the highest concentration of
both the micro- and macro-nutrients and significantly (P<0.05) had the
highest nutrient uptake. Based on the results reported from this study, Gero
badeggi, planted between April and May, is recommended for both forage and
grain production in this locality.
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the study
Millet (Pennisetum typhoides Burm. F.)
belongs to the family Poaceae (Remison, 2005). It is an annual and
cross-pollinated crop, with 2n=14 chromosome number (Raemaeker, 2001). It is
believed to have originated in West Africa (Van Oosterm, Leavy, Cranberry and
Cranfaud, 2002). It is planted as grain and fodder crop across a wide range of
environments around the world (Raemaeker, 2001). It is a high quality forage
crop in developed countries like United States of America and India (Van
Oosterm et al., 2002). Millet is the
world’s sixth most important cereal crop after wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza
sativa), maize (Zea mays), barley
(Hordeum valgare) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) (Singh, Singh and
Tyagi, 2003).
Millet
is a drought tolerant cereal and it is the crop of the driest region grown on
soils so low in nutrients and water – holding capacity of the atmosphere
(Bidinger and Hash, 2003). In the United States of America, the planting date
for millet is defined by minimum threshold for soil temperature (Soler, Nlaman,
Zhang, Mason and Hoogenboom, 2008). Millet
can grow in areas with annual rainfall of 250-900 mm with optimum temperature
of 30-35oc (Raemaeker, 2001). In the sahelian regions, the first
rain suitable for planting is often followed by several dry days that cause the
plant to fail and require the farmers to replant. The ideal soil pH range is
5.5-7.0, but it can also grow in soils with pH as high as 8.3 (Fahmy, Youssef
and Elshaer, 2010; Yakubu, Ngala and Dugje, 2010).
World
millet production stands at around 30 million tonnes annually with about 97% of
this annual figure produced in developing countries (Van Oosterm et al., 2002). Millet is an important
crop in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa, especially, in India,
Nigeria, Mali and Niger (Crawford and Gyoung-Ah, 2003). In Africa, the total
millet production is about 14 million tonnes annually with West African
countries producing the highest tonnes (Crawford and Gyoung-Ah, 2003). In West
Africa, the annual production record is about 13 million tonnes with Nigeria,
Niger, Burkina-Faso, Chad, Mali and Senegal contributing about 94% of this
annual figure (Ishaq and Meseka, 2014). In Nigeria, the annual production
record stands at about 5 million tonnes (Amodu, Adamu, Adeyinka, Alawa and
Jegede, 2005). However, over 40% of land sown annually to cereals in Nigeria’s
agro-ecological zones is devoted to millet (Uzoma, Eze, Alabi, Mgbonu, Aboje
and Osunde, 2010).
Millet
is locally known as “bajra” in India (Lee, Hanna, Buntin, Dozier, Temper and
Wilson, 2004), “Gero” in northern Nigeria (Izge, Kadama and Sajo, 2007). Millet
varieties are classified into “Gero”,
“Maiwa” and “Dauro” (Remison, 2005). There are many species of Pennisetum grown in different countries
of tropical Asia and Africa, but the most widely grown is pearl millet and is
regarded as the main important millet crop of East Africa and Nigeria and are
grown on the largest area. With the advent of high yielding dwarf millet
varieties, it is now being considered as a substitute for maize (Zea mays) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) in certain countries of
the world (Maas, Hanna and Mullinix, 2007). Research on millet for grain
production has been centered on developing dwarf hybrids, proper row spacing
(Pale, 2002) controlling weeds, dates
of planting and adaptability to local condition (Maman, Lyon, Mason, Galuasha
and Higgins, 2003).
According
to Bationo and Ntare (2000) millet is of great importance in the arid and
semi-arid tropics, where it is the staple food for millions of people. Today,
millet covers the food needs of more than 500 million people. It is the second
most important, only to sorghum, as a staple food in the savanna areas of
Nigeria (ICRISAT, 2006). Millet is used in many different ways by different
cultures. The Hunzas who live in a remote area of the Himalayan foothills use
millet for making bread and soup (USDA, 2009). In India, it is used to make
‘roti’ which is a thin flat cake made from millet flour and is used as basis
for various meals (Lee et al., 2004).
In Africa, its uses are diverse and range from baby food to bread. In Nigeria,
the grain is used primarily for human consumption. It is processed into “tuwo”
“kunu” and “akamu” (Remison, 2005). The stem is used for fencing, thatching, roofing
and fodder for livestock (Uzoma et al., 2010).
Millet grains may be cooked as rice, or may be ground into flour to make cake
and bread. The grains are also used to produce malt, and in Nigeria the malted
seed is an important source of beer (Remison, 2005). It is proving to be
superior feed for poultry, pigs, cattle, fish and other livestock and humans as
well are benefiting from its virtue. As a food source, it is non- glutinous and
non- acid forming so it is smoothing and easy to digest (Oelke, Oplinger,
Putnam, Durgan, Doll and Undersander, 2011).
Timely
planting of millet ensures sufficient time for root development and vegetative
growth for optimum harvesting (Amodu et
al., 2005). In sahelian locations, manipulation of planting dates in millet
cultivation offers flexibility owing to the narrowness of the optimum time of
sowing as conditioned by erratic onset of the rains and shorter raining season.
In the northern guinea savanna of Nigeria, sowing dates and planting methods
affect the crop population, which must be optimal in order to successfully
compete with weeds, absorb nutrient and moisture for good growth and
development (Shinggu and Gani, 2012). According to Uzoma et al. (2010), the best planting date in guinea savanna zone of
Nigeria is early June. Agber, Ter and Ayuba
(2012) observed that early planting in April was the best planting date for
millet in Makurdi, Nigeria. Uzoma et al. (2010),
reported that 17th June was
the best planting date with a grain yield of 3371 kg/ha in northern Nigeria. Siddig,
Mohamend, Kamal, Ali and Thabit (2013) reported that the best planting time for
millet is July 15th with a grain yield of 3169 kg/ha in northern Nigeria.
Millet
produces good quality forage and supplies forage from June through August
(Uzoma et al., 2010). Millet planted
in spring (April) should be ready for grazing 30 – 40 days after planting.
Imran, Sartajkhan, Zulfigar, Allah, Mujtaba and Sultani (2007) observed highest
dry matter yield of 13.5 t/ha and green fodder yield of 65.4 t/ha in PARC-MS-6
variety when planted in July in Pakistan. Sowing date is an important
production component that can be manipulated to counter the effects of
environmental stress. However, delay in sowing decreased values of all
parameters and yield can be increased by identification of higher yielding
varieties and proper planting time (Arif, Ihsanullah, Khan, Ghani and
Yousafzai, 2001; Khan, Khalil, Nigar,
Khalil, Haq, Ahmad, Ali and Khan, 2009).
Planting date can have a dramatic effect on crop development and proper
planting date is important for maximum grain yields, because optimum seeding
dates establish healthy and vigorous plant (Caliskan, Caliskan, Arslan and
Arrioglu, 2008). Mass et al. (2007) found that yield tended to
decline from April through June and then significantly decreased when planting
were in July or August in America. Result of experiment conducted in Nebraska
showed that the best planting date for millet were between 7th June
and 6th July, suggesting that millet could be an alternative crop
for double cropping and late planting situations (Pale, 2002). Abd El-latief (2011) reported that 15th of May
recorded the highest green fodder of 24.122 t/ha and dry matter yield 4.478
t/ha in India.
1.2
Justification for the study
Previous
study on millet in the Edo focused on evaluation of varieties in this zone (Nwajei,
2013; Omoregie and Nwajei, 2015).
It
is necessary to determine the appropriate planting date to obtain better
growth, forage and grain yield in this zone, since millet is affected by environmental
conditions, particularly photoperiod.
There
is an indication that livestock population and ruminant herding have increased
in the forest-savanna transition zone of Edo State, Nigeria. This has also
brought with it an increase in Hausa/ Fulani herdsmen who have become resident in
the zone and whose main food include millet. There
is the need to plant millet as forage crop to feed the increasing livestock
population, especially cattle in this zone. This will prevent the animals from
encroaching/destroying conventional crops planted by other farmers which in
turn will further prevent crop farmers from clashing with herdsmen.
Besides, with dwindling revenue from petroleum and its
products and the government policy to diversify the economy, there is need to
revamp the Agricultural sector, particularly, the cultivation of arable crops
beyond their traditional agro-ecological zones to provide sufficient food and
income for the ever increasing population.
Therefore, a study of this nature is necessary to fill the
gap existing in the knowledge of planting date of millet production in the
state. Given enough information on weather parameters; it is possible to
establish a simple relationship between crop yield and planting date. Such
information will be useful in selecting suitable planting date for a particular
variety of millet.
1.3
Objectives of the study
The overall aim of the study was therefore to determine the
appropriate time of planting on the performance of two varieties of millet in a
forest-savanna transition zone of Edo state, Nigeria.
The specific objectives
were to determine the effect of planting date on:
a. growth of the two varieties of millet;
b. grain yield and yield components of the
varieties;
c. green forage and dry matter yield of the
varieties; and
d. mineral composition and nutrient uptake
of the varieties.
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